Massive Flowering Research Articles

Inadequate Pollination Is a Key Factor Determining Low Fruit-to-Flower Ratios in Avocado

Avocado is an evergreen tree that exhibits protogynous dichogamy and displays a massive flower production, characterized by a high abscission of unfertilized flowers and developing fruitlets, ultimately leading to a low final fruit set. A common practice to improve avocado pollination involves introducing honey bee (Apis mellifera L.) hives during the flowering season. To evaluate the extent of inadequate pollination in avocado, the effect of different beehive densities on the percentage of flowers receiving pollen during the female flower stage was examined for seven years in an experimental orchard located in Southern Spain. A total of 17,288 flowers were observed under the microscope for this purpose. Additionally, pollen deposition was evaluated in five “Hass” avocado commercial orchards under different management strategies situated in the Malaga province (3960 flowers). The results obtained reveal that the percentage of flowers with pollen at the end of the female stage ranged from 2.85 (0.13% fruits retained at the end of June) in orchards without honey bee hives to 4.34 (0.11% fruits retained) in orchards in which 10 beehives per ha were placed. This percentage increased significantly to 13.79 after introducing 24 honey beehives per ha (0.21% fruits retained). Furthermore, the percentage of pollinated flowers in the commercial orchards remained below 15% even in those orchards in which pollen donors and honey bee hives were present. Thus, insufficient pollination could be considered as a primary limiting factor in avocado production under Mediterranean climates. Enhancing pollinator diversity and increasing their numbers could be a viable strategy to improve the percentage of avocado flowers receiving pollen during the female stage.

Shorea macrophylla: Overview of Illipe Nut Producing Tree

Shorea macrophylla is also named as ‘Engkabang’ (Iban), ‘Kawang’ (Brunei), and ‘Tengkawang’ (Indonesia). It belongs to the Dipterocarpaceae family and is categorised under the genus Shorea, which can be found in the tropical rainforests in Southeast Asia. It prefers wet habitats, such as in periodically flooded alluvium and riverbanks. The tree size of S. macrophylla is medium or large; however, some researchers in Kalimantan claim it is a small tree. The flowering and fruiting systems of most Dipterocarps, including S. macrophylla, are irregular, but there is a massive flowering event once every few years. Its genetic structure is characterised by moderate genetic diversity within species and populations, as well as high genetic differentiation within local populations. Shorea macrophylla, also known as the Light Red Meranti, is a suitable timber supply for light construction work. It produces illipe nuts that are widely used as cocoa butter replacer fat. Wildlife eats the ripe illipe nuts, which contain a high oil content with mostly beneficial unsaturated triglycerides. The fat extracted from the nut are suitable for cosmetic application as it provides a good moisturising effect. Future investigation into the illipe nuts’ composition and other potential uses should be carried out.

The Black Shape: The murders at Taliesin

The Black ShapeThe murders at Taliesin Aisha Sabatini Sloan (bio) In a youtube tour of Frank Lloyd Wright’s Wisconsin home Taliesin, pronounced “Tally-ESS-in,” a guide named Keiran Murphy explains that the architect “broke the box of architecture” when he built the estate. As she makes her way to the porte-cochère, the revamped carport, I am disturbed by the sight of a black shape slumped in a chair. The chair has been taped off—it’s clear no one is allowed to sit there. [End Page 55] After watching the scene several times to wonder at the shape—a stuffed animal, maybe, or a discarded sweatshirt—I decide that it is probably a fur. But it has the vibe of a ghost, of the shadow of history—the slumped, deflated haint of America’s past. Especially when you consider what Keiran Murphy has not said about the house over the course of this tour. The author William R. Drennan describes Taliesin’s loggia as “a stunning place, bordered on one side by a massive flower garden in full bloom and anchored at one end by a bubbling fountain and at the other by a stand of fine oaks.” On August 15, 1914, a Black servant named Julian Carlton chased a young white girl named Martha across the loggia and cleaved her skull with a hatchet. Julian Carlton also killed the little girl’s brother and her mother, Mamah, who was Frank Lloyd Wright’s mistress, in addition to several men who worked on the property. Witnesses say that one of these men, Emil Brodelle, had recently called Carlton “a Black son of a bitch.” Wright was out of town at the time of the massacre. After attacking several people with his hatchet, Carlton poured gasoline on the floor, put a match to the cascading sheet of it, and set the property on fire. i only know about all this because I have been looking at the paintings of Kerry James Marshall, in search of prisms. I have been thinking about the craft of writing while Black, and want to find a way to describe the impulse I have to refract—deflect?—(white) readers at the same time that I am trying to invite them in. Kerry James Marshall’s work has this quality about it. It both invites and deflects. In search of literal prisms in his work, I reacquaint myself with a favorite of his paintings, 7am Sunday Morning. It’s an ordinary street scene involving, on the right-hand side, a giant blue hexa-gram, five small black hexagrams, diamonds of foggy light, an orange hexagram, and a faint yellow one—it’s like a soap bubble has floated past your eye, exploding half of the painting into shards of light. [End Page 56] I encounter his painting The Actor Hezekiah Washington as Julian Carlton Taliesin Murderer of Frank Lloyd Wright Family. This painting is a prism of sorts. In the only existing photograph of Julian Carlton, who may have been from Barbados, or perhaps from Alabama, a young-seeming Black man in a collared shirt looks down and to the left of the frame. Instead of painting Julian Carlton, Kerry James Marshall invents a fictional actor to play the historical figure. This man, with light reflecting like two stars on either side of his coal-black forehead, looks down and to the left. He looks to the extreme left, not afraid to lean into the role. We are asked to project things on top of the figure, and inside the figure—stories, unseen others. online, i find three men named Hezekiah Washington, all of them Black. One is a recently deceased man from Charleston, South Carolina. His beautiful big eyes gaze straight into the camera. The image of him, like that of Julian Carlton, is small and a bit blurred. Another Hezekiah Washington is a high school basketball player, No. 22 on a team in Wichita, Kansas; I watch him for a while as he runs up and down the court in his video highlight reel. The third is a twenty-one-year-old actor from San Antonio, Texas. He has...

Bringing medicinal plants of the native flora of the northern Tien Shan into cultivation

In the current study, it was tried to investigate the medicinal plants of the native flora of the Northern Tien Shan to bring them into domestication. The study was carried out on the territory of a botanical garden located at an altitude of 880 m a.s.l., in the foothill steppe zone of the Zailiysky Alatau ridge, People’s Republic of China on light chestnut loamy soils. In 2018–2019, more than 90 samples of 51 species of medicinal plants of the Northern Tien Shan flora was selected from 17 families for introduction tests. The families Compositae (10 genera, 12 species) and Lamiaceae (12 genera, 13 species) were represented by the largest numbers of genera and species. The family Leguminosae was represented by four species from four genera; the families Polygonaceae and Ranunculaceae, by three species each; the family Rosaceae, by two species; and the remaining 11 families, by one species each. The results suggested that the majority of medicinal plants of the Northern Tien Shan tested can be successfully cultivated in the foothill zone of the Zailiysky Alatau. The results indicated that when propagated by seed, the laboratory germination varied from 2 to 30%, and the mass of seeds was 0.21 g. When sown in spring, the field germination was 8%, and when sown in autumn, 42% from 50 to 70% of seedlings survived until the end of the growing season. The massive flowering was observed in the third year, and the plants vegetated until the end of the growing season.

Characteristics of some biochemical parameters in assimilating organs of herbaceous and woody plants in conditions of introduction

The paper presents study results of 8 herbaceous and woody plants species assimilating organs biochemical parameters in conditions of introduction. It has been identified that in 4 herbaceous introduced species increased chlorophyll content and ratio of chlorophyll to flavonoids in August is associated with massive flowering and fruiting phases. On the contrary, in Crataegus ellwangeriana the maximum values of the above parameters are the reaction to unfavorable growing conditions (lack of nutrition and moisture) during the active growth period. The increased anthocyanins synthesis in Physocarpus opulifolius and Sorbaria sorbifolia by 1,21,4 times and increased nitrogen balance in Aronia melanocarpa up to 23 mg/cm in September compared to summer period testifies to protective function formation in plant organism in pre-winter period. Slight fluctuations in flavonoids content throughout the entire vegetation season confirm that all the studied plants are in optimal nitrogen status. The following statistical methods were used to interpret the present study results: Shapiro-Wilk W-test (for small samples n 30), parametric analysis method Students t-test, t-test for dependent samples.

Evolutionary ecology of Agave: distribution patterns, phylogeny, and coevolution (an homage to Howard S. Gentry).

With more than 200 species, the genus Agave is one of the most interesting and complex groups of plants in the world, considering for instance its great diversity and adaptations. The adaptations include the production of a single, massive inflorescence (the largest among plants) where after growing for many years, sometimes more than 30, the rosette dies shortly afterward, and the remarkable coevolution with their main pollinators, nectarivorous bats, in particular of the genus Leptonycteris. The physiological adaptations of Agave species include a photosynthetic metabolism that allows efficient use of water and a large degree of succulence, helping to store water and resources for their massive flowering event. Ecologically, the agaves are keystone species on which numerous animal species depend for their subsistence due to the large amounts of pollen and nectar they produce, that support many pollinators, including bats, perching birds, hummingbirds, moths, and bees. Moreover, in many regions of Mexico and in the southwestern United States, agaves are dominant species. We describe the contributions of H. S. Gentry to the understanding of agaves and review recent advances on the study of the ecology and evolution of the genus. We analyze the present and inferred past distribution patterns of different species in the genus, describing differences in their climatic niche and adaptations to dry conditions. We interpret these patterns using molecular clock data and phylogenetic analyses and information of their coevolving pollinators and from phylogeographic, morphological, and ecological studies and discuss the prospects for their future conservation and management.

Evaluation of Chemical Composition, Radical Scavenging and Antitumor Activities of Satureja hortensis L. Herb Extracts

Satureja hortensis L. is an annual herbaceous plant of the Lamiaceae Lindl. family. S. hortensis L., related to thyme and rosemary, is used as spice and traditional medicinal herb in Europe. Mainly due to the polyphenols contained in S. hortensis L., this plant exhibits multiple biological effects. However, therapeutic effects on cells, including skin tumors, have not yet been studied. Therefore, the aim of this study was to compare the composition and the resulting antioxidant as well as biological properties [on melanocytes and melanoma cells] of summer, savory growing in botanical garden of Vytautas Magnus University in middle Lithuania climatic conditions, collected during various phases of vegetation. It has been shown that the budding phase alcohol extract of this plant contains the largest amounts of polyphenols, including rutin and rosemary acid, which promote the radical scavenging activity and antioxidant properties. In contrast, the extract from the massive flowering phase already at a concentration of 12.5 µg/mL reduces the survival of melanoma cells to 60% with 90% melanocytes survival. In addition, extracts from beginning of flowering and end of flowering at a concentration of 25 µg/mL, containing significantly less rutin and rosmarinic acid, in combination with irradiation of cells with UVB, significantly increased the lipid peroxidation process, particularly in melanoma cells. These data indicate the possibility of using extracts from S. hortensis L. to modulate/differentiate the metabolism of normal and tumor skin cells.

Terminalia arjuna: An Important Subsistence Pollen Source for Apis florea During Spring Season in Southern West Bengal

Terminalia arjuna (Roxb.) Wight & Arn., a large evergreen tree, shows massive flowering during spring season (March–April). The floral characteristics with deep seated nectar having high sugar concentration serve this plant as an important pollen and nectar source for Apis bees. The inflorescences with clusters of flowers of this plant provide an excellent platform for foraging by Apis florea Fabr. In spite of diverse angiospermic flora in the present study area, A. florea intends to forage this handsome evergreen taxon because of its nutritious pollen and highest percentage of nectar sugar concentration. In the present article, pollen analysis of eight spring honey samples from different regions of Purulia district of West Bengal reveals that T. arjuna is found to be the predominant pollen type. So, a mutualistic relationship has been established between A. florea and T. arjuna. This plant taxon serves as a key nectar source for A. florea and takes the advantage of its highly nutritious pollen grains for increasing the colony and its strong nectar flow for honey production during the spring season in this southern part of Bengal. A. florea also foraged other angiospermic taxa such as Pedilanthus tithymaloides L., Croton bonplandianum Baill., Citrus, Solanum, Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth., Semecarpus anacardium L., Flacourtia jamgomas Lour., Psidium guajava L., Borassus flabellifer L., Tamarindus indica L., Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merr. and Asteraceae.

The unique inflorescence structure of Dorema aucheri (Apiaceae): An adaptation to the arid environment

Arid environments demand specific adaptations from plants in vegetative and reproductive systems. Self–compatibility, high pollen production and few well developed fruits are adapted to increase sexual reproductive success. Dorema aucheri is an arid–adapted, perennial monocarpic species endemic to southern Iran. It has a unique inflorescence structure. In this study, significance of inflorescence architecture for reproductive success was investigated in a wild population. The huge yellow inflorescences were frequently visited by manifold insects. The species is andromonoecious and spatially subdivided in a distal part with perfect flowers and a proximal part with male flowers. Flowers are protandrous and synchrononized in a duodichogamous manner which starts with the male, then female phase of the perfect flowers, followed by the male phase of the remaining flowers (7–10 days). Bagging assays confirmed that the plant is self–fertile. Sexual phases partly overlap allowing geitonogamy at some days and demanding obligate outcrossing at other days. The mixed breeding system and high degree of andromonoecy (77 ± 31%) coupled with an immense surplus of pollen grains (P/O =261,991:1), the long male flowering stage, attraction of flying pollinators by massive flowering and sexual asynchrony between neighboring plants are interpreted as adaptations to the arid environment increasing the rate of outcrossing.

Resprouting increases seedling persistence likelihood after fire in a semelparous bamboo species

Chusquea culeou is a semelparous bamboo species which dominates the understorey of temperate forests and shrublands of Patagonia, South America. After the massive flowering, seeding and subsequent die-off, it provides an extraordinary amount of fine and dry fuel that increases wildfire likelihood, which in turn threatens the survival of its own offspring. In this context, we tested if this species could have alternative survival mechanisms which allows the persistence of the single seedling cohort, specifically evaluating two stages: seed and seedling. After a massive flowering event that occurred in summer 2010–11 and reached a regional scale in north-western Patagonia, we experimentally tested: 1) the effect of heat (90 °C, 120 °C, 150 °C) and/or ash on germination capacity of C. culeou seeds; and 2) the effect of low to moderate intensity fires on resprouting response of seedlings (<2 yr). Heating treatments inhibited seed germination, whereas most of the seedlings survived after their above-ground biomass was burned. Resprouting ability increased with maximum temperature reached at shoot base. Post-fire survival was considerably high, since 68% of pots had surviving shoots at the end of the experiment. In a scenario of wildfire occurrence after a massive flowering and subsequent die-off event, our experimental results suggest that resprouting ability right from the seedling stage might ensure the persistence of C. culeou populations. Also, the differential vegetative response of the seedlings to distinct fire-intensities could trigger distinct recovery trajectories in the understorey, generating an opportunity for regeneration of other trees and/or shrub species.

Pollination Efficiency of Managed Bee Species (Apis mellifera and Bombus pauloensis) in Highbush Blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum) Productivity

Abstract Understanding how bees use the resources provided by crops of massive flowering is essential to develop meaningful agricultural management of plans to maximize the potential of pollination service. We assessed the effect of the pollination carried out by native species Bombus pauloensis and Apis mellifera on the production and quality of blueberry fruits. In this context, we tested the prediction that pollinator assemblages benefit fruit yield. Four treatments were performed: open pollination, B. pauloensis pollination, A. mellifera pollination, and autogamy. For each treatment, the frequency of floral visitors, fruit setting, yield, and quality were evaluated. The results showed that Vaccinium corymbosum L. ‘Emerald’ is highly dependent on entomophilous pollination to obtain optimal production and high-quality fruit, and that pollination with A. mellifera generated the highest proportion of fruit setting (0.80 ± 0.03). The highest seed number was found in open pollinated fruits. This study highlights the effect of the interactions among wild and managed pollinators on the productivity of commercial blueberry fields, and is the first report of B. pauloensis use in blueberry pollination.

An explosion of perfume: Mass flowering and sphingophily in the Caatinga dry region in Brazil

Abstract'Big Bang' flowering is common among geophyte plants and is a strategy particularly important in arid areas.Griffiniais a genus whose species have very ephemeral flowering. Not surprisingly, there is so far no information on the reproductive biology and pollination ecology of anyGriffiniaspecies. Here, we highlight an amazing phenomenon of massive flowering inGriffinia gardneriana, a species that blooms for only one or two nights and emits a remarkable odor plume in the Caatinga night. The flowering event of the species varied depending on the locality, but it was always associated with the rainy season. The high number of white tubular flowers produce a strong sweet perfume dominated by (E)‐nerolidol (42%), linalool (33%) and (E)‐β‐ocimene (15%).Agrius cingulata(Sphingidae) was the only pollinator recorded. BecauseG. gardnerianaset only a few fruits by self‐pollination, in contrast to a high number of fruits under natural conditions, this hawkmoth pollination system seems to be very efficient.

Essential oil composition of Artemisia abrotanum L. during different vegetation stages in Lithuania

Artemisia abrotanum L. was introduced in the Middle of Lithuania Collection of Spice–Melliferous Plants of the Scientific Sector of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants of the Botanical Garden ex situ at Vytautas Magnus University since 1980. The object of investigation was Artemisiae abrotani herba of Artemisia abrotanum L. All samples were collected at different vegetation stages: growth and leaf production, flower bud development, the beginning of flowering, massive flowering and the end of flowering. Essential oils were obtained by hydrodistillation. The chemical composition of the essential oils of Artemisiae abrotani herba was studied by GC/MS in the Department of Analytical and Toxicological Chemistry at the Lithuanian University of Health Science in 2018–2019. Fifty-six compounds of the oil were identified, of which (+)-piperitone was the major component (20.38–38.48%). The data in this study showed a remarkable quantitative variation of constituents in the essential oils. The highest content and diversity of compounds was determined during the flower bud development stage. Sixty identified compounds in this stage reached 76.6% of the identified oil content. The highest concentration of this compound (38.48%) was detected at the end of the flowering vegetation stage and the lowest amount (20.38%) was found during the growth and leaf production. Among the other major compounds were (+)-piperitone, 1,4-cineole, lavandulyl butyrate, aromandendrene and isogermacrene D.

Some Ecological Peculiarities of Bulbocodium versicolor (Ker-Gawl.) Spreng. (Colchicaceae, Magnoliophyta) in the Lower Volga Region

Abstract—This study presents the results of four years of observations of Bulbocodium versicolor (Ker-Gawl.) Spreng. populations in Saratov and Volgograd oblast. A low ecological plasticity of the species was established. Although the species is confined to steppe phytocenoses that vary in composition and structure, the morphology of specimens was rather conservative, which can be explained by the homogeneity of the vegetation conditions over the studied part of the range during active vegetation and flowering. It was shown that, in the Lower Volga region, B. versicolor is characterized by a reduced stress component of its life strategy and a low index of size plasticity. The species uses a patient strategy. Under stress conditions at the morphological level, plants react by miniaturizing the traits of the generative sphere, i.e., redistributing efforts from developing the generative sphere to maintaining the vegetative sphere. The ecotopic and phytocenotic tolerance of B. versicolor is manifested as the capacity to retain the occupied territory for a long time and to avoid competition by selection of the range. According to the conservation priority index, the majority of B. versicolor populations in the Lower Volga region are in a state close to endangered and their preservation requires immediate action. The main factors limiting the number of species in the region are probably aridization of climate and direct anthropogenic impact, which is reflected in the conversion of wildlands into arable land. There is no obvious negative impact on the species by intensive grazing and collection in bouquets. This may be attributed to the secluded location of the remaining species’ habitats that makes the species practically inaccessible in the period of massive flowering. This is primarily due to the fact that the remaining habitats of the species are relatively far from settlements and that during the period of mass flowering of the species they are virtually inaccessible to an impact from these factors due to the remote location.

Mass flowering of Fagus crenata does not depend on the amount of stored carbohydrates in trees

Stored carbohydrates in trees do not act as key requirements for mass flowering in a masting species, Fagus crenata. Many tree species exhibit high interannual variability in flower production at population level, called mass flowering. These species may need to store a certain amount of carbohydrate resources in trees for flowering. Based on this assumption, we hypothesized that masting tree species would blossom heavily when carbohydrates were sufficiently stored up in some specific organs. To test this hypothesis, we studied the relationship between stored carbohydrates in various organs just before the season of flower bud initiation and the number of flowers in the following year in a typical masting species, Fagus crenata (Fagaceae), over 10 years. In addition, we estimated the carbon accumulation period required for flower production by radiocarbon (14C) contents of inflorescences in this species. During the study period, the individuals studied flowered synchronously about every 2 years, but levels of the flowering magnitude were different from each other. Total nonstructural carbohydrate (TNC) concentrations also exhibited large interannual variations, while the long-term trend of TNC over the 10-year observation period showed a general increase in all the investigated tree individuals. There was no significant relationship between the TNC concentrations in each organ and the number of flowers produced in the following year, including the massive flowering event in 2006 when all the selected trees flowered heavily. Fagus crenata produced inflorescences using carbon resources assimilated mainly in the year when the flower buds were formed. These results suggest that the storage of carbohydrate resources might not be a limiting factor in the occurrence or frequency of flowering in this species.

Heat-stress induced flowering can be a potential adaptive response to ocean warming for the iconic seagrass Posidonia oceanica.

The Mediterranean Sea is particularly vulnerable to warming and the abrupt declines experienced by the endemic Posidonia oceanica populations after recent heatwaves have forecasted severe consequences for the ecological functions and socio-economical services this habitat forming species provides. Nevertheless, this highly clonal and long-lived species could be more resilient to warming than commonly thought since heat-sensitive plants massively bloomed after a simulated heatwave, which provides the species with an opportunity to adapt to climate change. Taking advantage of this unexpected plant response, we investigated for the first time the molecular and physiological mechanisms involved in seagrass flowering through the transcriptomic analysis of bloomed plants. We also aimed to identify if flowering is a stress-induced response as suggested from the fact that heat-sensitive but not heat-tolerant plants flowered. The transcriptomic profiles of flowered plants showed a strong metabolic activation of sugars and hormones and indications of an active transport of these solutes within the plant, most likely to induce flower initiation in the apical meristem. Preflowered plants also activated numerous epigenetic-related genes commonly used by plants to regulate the expression of key floral genes and stress-tolerance genes, which could be interpreted as a mechanism to survive and optimize reproductive success under stress conditions. Furthermore, these plants provided numerous molecular clues suggesting that the factor responsible for the massive flowering of plants from cold environments (heat-sensitive) can be considered as a stress. Heat-stress induced flowering may thus be regarded as an ultimate response to survive extreme warming events with potential adaptive consequences for the species. Fitness implications of this unexpected stress-response and the potential consequences on the phenotypic plasticity (acclimation) and evolutionary (adaptation) opportunity of the species to ocean warming are finally discussed.

Энантиомерный состав компонентов эфирных масел Ocimum L

Basil Ocimum L. belongs to the perspective aromatic and essential-oil plants. Its green mass and essential oils can be successfully used in different sectors of economy including food industry. In 56 samples of basil Ocimum L. having different ecological and geographic origin the author determined the content and yield of essential oils. The study of the taken basil cultivars shows that the content of essential oils in different types of basil (sweet basil – Ocimum basilicum L., holy basil – Ocimum tenuiflorum L., camphor basil – Ocimum kilimandscharicum Willd., hoary basil – Ocimum canum Sims.) was 0.28–0.83% when its yield was 24.0–314.6 kg/ha and green mass yield during technological maturity phase (massive flowering) was 0.51–5.08 kg/m2. By means of gas liquid chromatography method the author performed compositional and anantiometric analysis of the composition of the essential oils obtained from the new basil varieties such as Ocimum L. (Magiya, Volodar, Nastena, Istochnik), bred in Belorussian State Agricultural Academy and catalogued in the National Register of Cultivars in the Republic of Belarus. As a result of the research the author determined that essential oil samples obtained from the new basil cultivars have up to 20 components. The main components are linalool, methyl chavicol, - and -pinenes, -terpineol, eugenol, geraniol, geranial, geranyl acetate, thymol, neral, carvone, carvacrol, limonene and 1.8-cineol. Enantiomers are present in essential oil components - and -pinenes, limonene and linalool.

Special offer while stocks last: high-energy pulse of nectar caused by a massive post-fire flowering of Sinningia elatior (Gesneriaceae) in an area of Cerrado and implications for its pollination

Abstract The massive post-fire flowering of Sinningia elatior (Gesneriaceae) was examined in an area of Cerrado (Brazilian savanna). To study the reproductive system, pollination tests were conducted in the field. Individuals of S. elatior were found isolated or grouped in the area, the orange to reddish flowers are odorless and tubular. Despite being a protandrous species, S. elatior is self-compatible with spontaneous self-pollination, without apomixis. The male phase lasted two days whereas the female lasted three days. The caloric reward per flower was estimated in 40.8 cal ± 4.2 (n = 20). The massive post-fire flowering of this species provided a large, episodic supply of nectar to nine hummingbirds’ species and 16 insects’ species. While all hummingbirds acted as pollinators, insects were only recorded as nectar/pollen thieves. The S. elatior population offered around 23 Kcal, supplying the energetic needs of approximately two to four hummingbirds per day. Post-fire massive flowering is rare and unpredictable in the Cerrado. Therefore, the fire regime acts shaping the flowering dynamics of some species, producing mosaics of temporary special offers of floral resources that affect not only the foraging dynamics of pollinators but also the crossing patterns of the plant species.

Distribution and synchronized massive flowering of Sasa borealis in the forests of Korean National Parks

BackgroundGenus Sasa, dwarf bamboos, are considered to be species that lower biodiversity in the temperate forests of East Asia. Although they have a long interval, they, the monocarpic species, have a unique characteristic of large-scale synchronized flowering. Therefore, once they have flowered and then declined, it may be an opportunity for suppressed surrounding species. A previous study reported that Sasa borealis showed specialized flowering nationwide with a peak in 2015. However, this was based on data from a social network service and field survey at Mt. Jeombong. Therefore, we investigated S. borealis in the forests of five national parks in order to determine whether this rare synchronized flowering occurred nationwide, as well as its spatial distribution.ResultsWe found a total of 436 patches under the closed canopy of Quercus mongolica-dominated deciduous forests in the surveyed transects from the five national parks. Of these patches, 75% occupied a whole slope area, resulting in an enormous area. The patch area tended to be larger in the southern parks. Half (219 patches) of the patches flowered massively. Among them, 76% bloomed in 2015, which was consistent with the results of the previous report. The flowering rate varied from park to park with that of Mt. Seorak being the highest. The culms of the flowering patches were significantly taller (F = 93.640, p < 0.000) and thicker (F = 61.172, p < 0.000). Following the event, the culms of the flowering patches declined, providing a good opportunity for the suppressed plant species. The concurrent massive flowering of the mature patches was believed to be triggered by some stress such as a spring drought.ConclusionWe confirmed that the rare synchronized flowering of S. borealis occurred with a peak in 2015 nationwide. In addition, we explored that S. borealis not only monopolized an enormous area, but also dominated the floors of the late-successional Q. mongolica-dominated deciduous forests. This presents a major problem for Korean forests. As it declined simultaneously after flowering, there are both possibilities of forest regeneration or resettlement of S. borealis by massively produced seeds.

Phytochemical Profiles of Alpine Plant Horminum pyrenaicum L. during Phenological Growth Stages.

Horminum pyrenaicum L. is a medicinal, aromatic and ornamental plant native to the Pyrenees and Alps. The phytochemical composition is affected by various ecological factors, climatic conditions and cultivating factors, and especially phenological growth stages. Flavonoids, phenolic acids and triterpenic acids were identified and quantified in the above-ground parts of H.pyrenaicum during the phenological stages. The massive flowering was distinguished with the greatest total amounts of phenolic compounds (22232.8μg/g), and rosmarinic acid was the predominant compound. The amounts of triterpenic compounds were at the lowest during the intense growth stage and significantly increased up to the massive flowering. The prevailing compounds were ursolic acid and betulinic acid, 12092.4μg/g and 2618.9μg/g, respectively. The major essential oil compounds were β-phellandrene (56.6%), caryophyllene oxide (5.9%), (Z)-caryophyllene (4.4%), myrcene (4.1%) and thymol (3.6%). Selecting the optimal harvesting time could ensure the herbal raw material rich with preferred bioactive compounds.