Massive Circumstellar Disks Research Articles

Formation of low-mass protostars and their circumstellar disks

Understanding circumstellar disks is of prime importance in astrophysics; however, their birth process remains poorly constrained due to observational and numerical challenges. Recent numerical works have shown that the small-scale physics, often wrapped into a sub-grid model, play a crucial role in disk formation and evolution. This calls for a combined approach in which both the protostar and circumstellar disk are studied in concert. We aim to elucidate the small-scale physics and constrain sub-grid parameters commonly chosen in the literature by resolving the star-disk interaction. We carried out a set of very high resolution 3D radiative-hydrodynamics simulations that self-consistently describe the collapse of a turbulent, dense molecular cloud core to stellar densities. We studied the birth of the protostar, the circumstellar disk, and its early evolution ($<6\ yr $ after protostellar formation). Following the second gravitational collapse, the nascent protostar quickly reaches breakup velocity and sheds its surface material, thus forming a hot ($ K $), dense, and highly flared circumstellar disk. The protostar is embedded within the disk such that material can flow without crossing any shock fronts. The circumstellar disk mass quickly exceeds that of the protostar, and its kinematics are dominated by self-gravity. Accretion onto the disk is highly anisotropic, and accretion onto the protostar mainly occurs through material that slides on the disk surface. The polar mass flux is negligible in comparison. The radiative behavior also displays a strong anisotropy, as the polar accretion shock was shown to be supercritical, whereas its equatorial counterpart is subcritical. We also find a remarkable convergence of our results with respect to initial conditions. These results reveal the structure and kinematics in the smallest spatial scales relevant to protostellar and circumstellar disk evolution. They can be used to describe accretion onto regions commonly described by sub-grid models in simulations studying larger-scale physics.

The Anatomy of an Unusual Edge-on Protoplanetary Disk. II. Gas Temperature and a Warm Outer Region

Abstract We present high-resolution 12CO and 13CO 2–1 ALMA observations, as well as optical and near-infrared spectroscopy, of the highly inclined protoplanetary disk around SSTC2D J163131.2–242627. The spectral type we derive for the source is consistent with a 1.2 M ⊙ star inferred from the ALMA observations. Despite its massive circumstellar disk, we find little to no evidence for ongoing accretion on the star. The CO maps reveal a disk that is unusually compact along the vertical direction, consistent with its appearance in scattered light images. The gas disk extends about twice as far away as both the submillimeter continuum and the optical scattered light. CO is detected from two surface layers separated by a midplane region in which CO emission is suppressed, as expected from freeze-out in the cold midplane. We apply a modified version of the tomographically reconstructed distribution method presented by Dutrey et al. to derive the temperature structure of the disk. We find a temperature in the CO-emitting layers and the midplane of ∼33 K and ∼20 K at R < 200 au, respectively. Outside of R > 200 au, the disk’s midplane temperature increases to ∼30 K, with a nearly vertically isothermal profile. The transition in CO temperature coincides with a dramatic reduction in the submicron and submillimeter emission from the disk. We interpret this as interstellar UV radiation providing an additional source of heating to the outer part of the disk.

Search for giant planets around seven white dwarfs in the Hyades cluster with the Hubble Space Telescope

ABSTRACT Only a small number of exoplanets have been identified in stellar cluster environments. We initiated a high angular resolution direct imaging search using the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) and its Near-Infrared Camera and Multi-Object Spectrometer (NICMOS) instrument for self-luminous giant planets in orbit around seven white dwarfs in the 625 Myr old nearby (≈45 pc) Hyades cluster. The observations were obtained with Near-Infrared Camera 1 (NIC1) in the F110W and F160W filters, and encompass two HST roll angles to facilitate angular differential imaging. The difference images were searched for companion candidates, and radially averaged contrast curves were computed. Though we achieve the lowest mass detection limits yet for angular separations ≥0.5 arcsec, no planetary mass companion to any of the seven white dwarfs, whose initial main-sequence masses were >2.8 M⊙, was found. Comparison with evolutionary models yields detection limits of ≈5–7 Jupiter masses (MJup) according to one model, and between 9 and ≈12 MJup according to another model, at physical separations corresponding to initial semimajor axis of ≥5–8 au (i.e. before the mass-loss events associated with the red and asymptotic giant branch phase of the host star). The study provides further evidence that initially dense cluster environments, which included O- and B-type stars, might not be highly conducive to the formation of massive circumstellar discs, and their transformation into giant planets (with m ≥ 6 MJup and a ≥6 au). This is in agreement with radial velocity surveys for exoplanets around G- and K-type giants, which did not find any planets around stars more massive than ≈3 M⊙.

Detection of a Disk Surrounding the Variably Accreting Young Star HBC722

Abstract We present new ALMA 233 GHz continuum observations of the FU Orionis Object HBC722. With these data we detect HBC722 at millimeter wavelengths for the first time, use this detection to calculate a circumstellar disk mass of 0.024 M ⊙, and discuss implications for the burst triggering mechanism.

Nonaxisymmetric instabilities and star-disk coupling I. Moderate mass disks

We present results of an investigation of the effects massive circumstellar disks have on the stability properties of polytropic stars. We consider systems with moderate mass disks, $M_{d}/M_{*} = 0.2$ and 0.25 where $M_{d}$ and $M_{*}$ are the masses of the disk and star respectively, and with central stars in slow uniform rotation and central stars in rapid differential rotation. We study systems where the central stars are above the barlike mode secular and dynamic instability thresholds for rotating solitary stars and systems where the stars are below the barlike mode secular instability threshold for rotating solitary stars. Equilibrium systems composed of stars with massive circumstellar disks are calculated, and their stability properties determined using linear and nonlinear techniques. For the uniform rotation case, the central stars are in slow rotation in the sense that they are below barlike instability thresholds for rotating single stars. For the differential rotation case, the central stars span the range from slow rotation to rapid rotation where rapid rotation means the stars are unstable to dynamic barlike instabilities. Gravitational coupling between the star and disk drives one-armed instabilities in the slowly rotating central star case. The couple primarily forces orbital motion rather than spin-up of the star. For systems with differentially rotating central stars with slow rotation, star-disk coupling drives instability in one-armed and two-armed modes. At the fastest rotation considered, the central star becomes unstable to the barlike instability evolving in a manner similar to that found for single rapidly rotating stars. The central stars did not fission. Star-disk coupling does not strongly influence the development of the barlike mode for this case.

The viscous evolution of circumstellar discs in young star clusters

Stars with circumstellar disks may form in environments with high stellar and gas densities which affects the disks through processes like truncation from dynamical encounters, ram pressure stripping, and external photoevaporation. Circumstellar disks also undergo viscous evolution which leads to disk expansion. Previous work indicates that dynamical truncation and viscous evolution play a major role in determining circumstellar disk size and mass distributions. However, it remains unclear under what circumstances each of these two processes dominates. Here we present results of simulations of young stellar clusters taking viscous evolution and dynamical truncations into account. We model the embedded phase of the clusters by adding leftover gas as a background potential which can be present through the whole evolution of the cluster, or expelled after 1 Myr. We compare our simulation results to actual observations of disk sizes, disk masses, and accretion rates in star forming regions. We argue that the relative importance of dynamical truncations and the viscous evolution of the disks changes with time and cluster density. Viscous evolution causes the importance of dynamical encounters to increase in time, but the encounters cease soon after the expulsion of the leftover gas. For the clusters simulated in this work, viscous growth dominates the evolution of the disks.

Shifting of the resonance location for planets embedded in circumstellar disks

Context. In the early evolution of a planetary system, a pair of planets may be captured in a mean motion resonance while still embedded in their nesting circumstellar disk. Aims. The goal is to estimate the direction and amount of shift in the semimajor axis of the resonance location due to the disk gravity as a function of the gas density and mass of the planets. The stability of the resonance lock when the disk dissipates is also tested. Methods. The orbital evolution of a large number of systems is numerically integrated within a three-body problem in which the disk potential is computed as a series of expansion. This is a good approximation, at least over a limited amount of time. Results. Two different resonances are studied: the 2:1 and the 3:2. In both cases the shift is inwards, even if by a different amount, when the planets are massive and carve a gap in the disk. For super-Earths, the shift is instead outwards. Different disk densities, Σ, are considered and the resonance shift depends almost linearly on Σ. The gas dissipation leads to destabilization of a significant number of resonant systems, in particular if it is fast. Conclusions. The presence of a massive circumstellar disk may significantly affect the resonant behavior of a pair of planets by shifting the resonant location and by decreasing the size of the stability region. The disk dissipation may explain some systems found close to a resonance but not locked in it.

Effects of the Planetary Temperature on the Circumplanetary Disk and on the Gap

Abstract Circumplanetary disks (CPDs) regulate the late accretion to the giant planet and serve as the birthplace for satellites. Understanding their characteristics via simulations also helps to prepare for their observations. Here we study disks around 1, 3, 5, and 10 M Jup planets with 3D global radiative hydrodynamic simulations with sub-planet peak resolution and various planetary temperatures. We found that as the 1 M Jup planet radiates away its formation heat, the circumplanetary envelope transitions to a disk between and 4000 K. In the case of 3–10 M Jup planets, a disk always forms. The temperature profile of the CPDs is very steep, the inner 1/6th is higher than the silicate condensation temperature, and the entire disk is higher than the water freezing point, making satellite formation impossible in this early stage (<1 Myr). Satellites might form much later and first in the outer parts of the disk, migrating inwards later on. Our disk masses are 1, 7, and 20 for the 1, 3, 5, and 10 M Jup gas giants, respectively, and we provide an empirical formula to estimate the subdisk masses based on the planet- and circumstellar disk (CSD) mass. Our finding is that the cooler the planet, the lower the temperature of the subdisk, and the higher the vertical influx velocities. The planetary gap is also both deeper and wider. We also show that the gaps in 2D and 3D are different. The subdisk eccentricity increases with and violently interacts with the CSD, making satellite-formation less likely when .

On the Origin of the Spiral Morphology in the Elias 2–27 Circumstellar Disk

Abstract The young star Elias 2–27 has recently been observed to posses a massive circumstellar disk with two prominent large-scale spiral arms. In this Letter, we perform three-dimensional Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics simulations, radiative transfer modeling, synthetic ALMA imaging, and an unsharped masking technique to explore three possibilities for the origin of the observed structures—an undetected companion either internal or external to the spirals, and a self-gravitating disk. We find that a gravitationally unstable disk and a disk with an external companion can produce morphology that is consistent with the observations. In addition, for the latter, we find that the companion could be a relatively massive planetary-mass companion (≲10–13 M Jup) and located at large radial distances (between ≈300–700 au). We therefore suggest that Elias 2–27 may be one of the first detections of a disk undergoing gravitational instabilities, or a disk that has recently undergone fragmentation to produce a massive companion.

Circumplanetary discs around young giant planets: a comparison between core-accretion and disc instability

Circumplanetary disks can be found around forming giant planets, regardless of whether core accretion or gravitational instability built the planet. We carried out state-of-the-art hydrodynamical simulations of the circumplanetary disks for both formation scenarios, using as similar initial conditions as possible to unveil possible intrinsic differences in the circumplanetary disk mass and temperature between the two formation mechanisms. We found that the circumplanetary disks mass linearly scales with the circumstellar disk mass. Therefore, in an equally massive protoplanetary disk, the circumplanetary disks formed in the disk instability model can be only a factor of eight more massive than their core-accretion counterparts. On the other hand, the bulk circumplanetary disk temperature differs by more than an order of magnitude between the two cases. The subdisks around planets formed by gravitational instability have a characteristic temperature below 100 K, while the core accretion circumplanetary disks are hot, with temperatures even greater than 1000 K when embedded in massive, optically thick protoplanetary disks. We explain how this difference can be understood as the natural result of the different formation mechanisms. We argue that the different temperatures should persist up to the point when a full-fledged gas giant forms via disk instability, hence our result provides a convenient criteria for observations to distinguish between the two main formation scenarios by measuring the bulk temperature in the planet vicinity.

CIRCUMSTELLAR DISKS AROUND BINARY STARS IN TAURUS

We have conducted a survey of 17 wide (> 100 AU) young binary systems in Taurus with the Atacama Large Millimeter Array (ALMA) at two wavelengths. The observations were designed to measure the masses of circumstellar disks in these systems as an aid to understanding the role of multiplicity in star and planet formation. The ALMA observations had sufficient resolution to localize emission within the binary system. Disk emission was detected around all primaries and ten secondaries, with disk masses as low as $10^{-4} M_{\odot}$. We compare the properties of our sample to the population of known disks in Taurus and find that the disks from this binary sample match the scaling between stellar mass and millimeter flux of $F_{mm} \propto M_{\ast}^{1.5-2.0}$ to within the scatter found in previous studies. We also compare the properties of the primaries to those of the secondaries and find that the secondary/primary stellar and disk mass ratios are not correlated; in three systems, the circumsecondary disk is more massive than the circumprimary disk, counter to some theoretical predictions.

FROM DUSTY FILAMENTS TO MASSIVE STARS: THE CASE OF NGC 7538 S

We report on high-sensitivity and high-angular resolution archival Submillimeter Array (SMA) observations of the large ($\sim$15000 AU) putative circumstellar disk associated with the O-type protostar NGC 7538 S. Observations of the continuum resolve this putative circumstellar disk into five compact sources, with sizes $\sim$ 3000 AU and masses $\sim10 M_\odot$. This confirm the results of recent millimeter observations made with CARMA/BIMA towards this object. However, we find that from most of these compact sources eject collimated bipolar outflows, revealed by our silicon monoxide (SiO {\it J}=5-4) observations and confirm that these sources have a (proto)stellar nature. All outflows are perpendicular to the large and rotating dusty structure. We propose therefore that, rather than being a single massive circumstellar disk, NGC 7538 S could be instead a large and massive contracting or rotating filament that is fragmenting at scales of 0.1 to 0.01 pc to form several B-type stars, via the standard process involving outflows and disks. As in recent high spatial resolution studies of dusty filaments, our observations also suggest that thermal pressure does not seem to be sufficient to support the filament, so that either additional support needs to be invoked, or else the filament must be in the process of collapsing. An SPH numerical simulation of the formation of a molecular cloud by converging warm neutral medium flows produces contracting filaments whose dimensions and spacings between the stars forming within them, as well as their column densities, strongly resemble those observed in the filament reported here.

Impact of protostellar outflow on star formation: effects of the initial cloud mass

Star formation efficiency controlled by the protostellar outflow in a single cloud core is investigated by three-dimensional resistive MHD simulations. Starting from the prestellar cloud core, the star formation process is calculated until the end of the main accretion phase. In the calculations, the mass of the prestellar cloud is parameterized. During the star formation, the protostellar outflow is driven by the circumstellar disk. The outflow extends also in the transverse direction until its width becomes comparable to the initial cloud scale, and thus, the outflow has a wide opening angle of >40 degrees. As a result, the protostellar outflow sweeps up a large fraction of the infalling material and ejects it into the interstellar space. The outflow can eject at most over half of the host cloud mass, significantly decreasing star formation efficiency. The outflow power is stronger in clouds with a greater initial mass. Thus, the protostellar outflow effectively suppresses star formation efficiency in a massive cloud. The outflow weakens significantly and disappears in several free-fall timescales of the initial cloud after the cloud begins to collapse. The natal prestellar core influences the lifetime and size of the outflow. At the end of the main accretion phase, a massive circumstellar disk comparable in mass to the protostar remains. Calculations show that typically, ~30% of the initial cloud mass is converted into the protostar and ~20% remains in the circumstellar disk, while ~40% is ejected into the interstellar space by the protostellar outflow. Therefore, a single cloud core typically has a star formation efficiency of 30-50%.

RESOLVING THE CIRCUMSTELLAR DISK OF HL TAURI AT MILLIMETER WAVELENGTHS

We present results of high-resolution imaging toward HL Tau by the Combined Array for Research in Millimeter-wave Astronomy (CARMA). We have obtained 1.3 and 2.7 mm dust continua with an angular resolution down to 0.13 arc second. Through model fitting to the two wavelength data simultaneously in Bayesian inference using a flared viscous accretion disk model, we estimate the physical properties of HL Tau, such as density distribution, dust opacity spectral index, disk mass, disk size, inclination angle, position angle, and disk thickness. HL Tau has a circumstellar disk mass of 0.13 solar mass, a characteristic radius of 79 AU, an inclination of 40 degree, and a position angle of 136 degree. Although a thin disk model is preferred by our two wavelength data, a thick disk model is needed to explain the high mid- and far-infrared emission of the HL Tau spectral energy distribution. This could imply large dust grains settled down on the mid plane with fine dust grains mixed with gas. The HL Tau disk is likely gravitationally unstable and can be fragmented between 50 and 100 AU of radius. However, we did not detect dust thermal continuum supporting the protoplanet candidate claimed by a previous study using observations of the Very Large Array at 1.3 cm.

Classification of the circumstellar disc evolution during the main accretion phase

We have carried out hydro-dynamical simulations to investigate the formation and evolution of protostar and circumstellar disks from the prestellar cloud. As the initial state, we adopt the molecular cloud core with two non-dimensional parameters representing the thermal and rotational energies. With these parameters, we make 17 models and calculate the cloud evolution ~ 10^4 years after the protostar formation. We find that early evolution of the star-disk system can be qualitatively classified into four modes: the massive disk, early fragmentation, late fragmentation, and protostar dominant modes. In the 'massive disk mode' to which the majority of models belong, the disk mass is greater than the protostellar mass for over 10^4 years and no fragmentation occurs in the circumstellar disk. The collapsing cloud shows fragmentation before the protostar formation in the 'early fragmentation mode'. The circumstellar disk shows fragmentation after the protostar formation in the 'late fragmentation mode', in which the secondary star substantially gains its mass from the circumstellar disk after fragmentation and it has a mass comparable to that of the primary star. The protostellar mass rapidly increases and exceeds the circumstellar disk mass in the 'protostar dominant mode'. This mode appears only when the initial molecular cloud core has a considerably small rotational energy. Comparison of our results with observations indicates that a majority of protostar has a fairly massive disk during the main accretion phase: the circumstellar disk mass is comparable to or more massive than the protostar. It is expected that such a massive disk promotes gas-giant formation by gravitational instability in a subsequent evolution stage.

Spin-down of protostars through gravitational torques

Young protostars embedded in circumstellar discs accrete from an angular momentum-rich mass reservoir. Without some braking mechanism, all stars should be spinning at or near break-up velocity. In this paper, we perform simulations of the self-gravitational collapse of an isothermal cloud using the ORION adaptive mesh refinement code and investigate the role that gravitational torques might play in the spin-down of the dense central object. While magnetic effects likely dominate for low mass stars, high mass and Population III stars might be less well magnetised. We find that gravitational torques alone prevent the central object from spinning up to more than half of its breakup velocity, because higher rotation rates lead to bar-like deformations that enable efficient angular momentum transfer to the surrounding medium. We also find that the long-term spin evolution of the central object is dictated by the properties of the surrounding disc. In particular, spiral modes with azimuthal wavenumber $m=2$ couple more effectively to its spin than the lopsided $m=1$ mode, which was found to inhibit spin evolution. We suggest that even in the absence of magnetic fields, gravitational torques may provide an upper limit on stellar spin, and that moderately massive circumstellar discs can cause long-term spin down.

Detection of a large massive circumstellar disk around a high-mass young stellar object in the Carina Nebula

(abbreviated) We investigate the spatial structure and spectral energy distribution of an edge-on circumstellar disk around an optically invisible young stellar object that is embedded in a dark cloud in the Carina Nebula. Whereas the object was detected as an apparently point-like source in earlier infrared observations, only the superb image quality (FWHM ~0.5") of our VLT / HAWK-I data could reveal, for the first time, its peculiar morphology. It consists of a very red point-like central source that is surrounded by a roughly spherical nebula, which is intersected by a remarkable dark lane through the center. We construct the spectral energy distribution of the object from 1 to 870 microns and perform a detailed radiative transfer modeling of the spectral energy distribution and the source morphology. The observed object morphology in the near-IR images clearly suggests a young stellar object that is embedded in an extended, roughly spherical envelope and surrounded by a large circumstellar disk with a diameter of ~5500 AU that is seen nearly edge-on. The radiative transfer modeling shows that the central object is a massive (10-15 Msun) young stellar object. The circumstellar disk has a mass of about 2 Msun. The disk object in Carina is one of the most massive young stellar objects for which a circumstellar disk has been detected so far, and the size and mass of the disk are very large compared to the corresponding values found for most other similar objects.

The origin and formation of the circumstellar disc

The formation and evolution of the circumstellar disk in the collapsing molecular cloud is investigated from the prestellar stage resolving both the molecular cloud core and the protostar itself. In the collapsing cloud, the first adiabatic core appears prior to the protostar formation. Reflecting the thermodynamics of the collapsing gas, the first core is much more massive than the protostar. When the molecular cloud has no angular momentum, the first core falls onto the protostar and disappears a few years after the protostar formation. On the other hand, when the molecular cloud has an angular momentum, the first core does not disappear even after the protostar formation, and directly evolves into the circumstellar disk with a Keplerian rotation. There are two paths for the formation of the circumstellar disk. When the initial cloud has a considerably small rotational energy, two nested disks appear just after the protostar formation. During the early main accretion phase, the inner disk increases its size and merges with the outer disk (i.e. first core) to form a single circumstellar disk with a Keplerian rotation. On the other hand, when the molecular cloud has a rotational energy comparable to observations, a single Keplerian disk that corresponds to the first core already exists prior to the protostar formation. In such a cloud, the first core density gradually increases, maintaining the Keplerian rotation and forms the protostar inside it. Thus, the protostar is born in the Keplerian disk. In other words, a massive disk already exists before the protostar formation. In each case, the protostar at its formation is already surrounded by a massive circumstellar disk. The circumstellar disk is about 10-100 times more massive than the protostar in the main accretion disk. Such disks are favourable sites for the formation of binary companions and gas-giant planets.

RECURRENT PLANET FORMATION AND INTERMITTENT PROTOSTELLAR OUTFLOWS INDUCED BY EPISODIC MASS ACCRETION

The formation and evolution of a circumstellar disk in magnetized cloud cores is investigated from prestellar core stage until sim 10^4 yr after protostar formation. In the circumstellar disk, fragmentation first occurs due to gravitational instability in a magnetically inactive region, and substellar-mass objects appear. The substellar-mass objects lose their orbital angular momenta by gravitational interaction with the massive circumstellar disk and finally fall onto the protostar. After this fall, the circumstellar disk increases its mass by mass accretion and again induces fragmentation. The formation and falling of substellar-mass objects are repeated in the circumstellar disk until the end of the main accretion phase. In this process, the mass of fragments remain small, because the circumstellar disk loses its mass by fragmentation and subsequent falling of fragments before it becomes very massive. In addition, when fragments orbit near the protostar, they disturb the inner disk region and promote mass accretion onto the protostar. The orbital motion of substellar-mass objects clearly synchronizes with the time variation of the accretion luminosity of the protostar. Moreover, as the objects fall, the protostar shows a strong brightening for a short duration. The intermittent protostellar outflows are also driven by the circumstellar disk whose magnetic field lines are highly tangled owing to the orbital motion of fragments. The time-variable protostellar luminosity and intermittent outflows may be a clue for detecting planetary-mass objects in the circumstellar disk.

FORMATION PROCESS OF THE CIRCUMSTELLAR DISK: LONG-TERM SIMULATIONS IN THE MAIN ACCRETION PHASE OF STAR FORMATION

The formation and evolution of the circumstellar disk in unmagnetized molecular clouds is investigated using three-dimensional hydrodynamic simulations from the prestellar core until the end of the main accretion phase. In collapsing cloud cores, the first (adiabatic) core with a size of ≳3 AU forms prior to the formation of the protostar. At its formation, the first core has a thick disk-like structure and is mainly supported by the thermal pressure. After the protostar formation, it decreases the thickness gradually and becomes supported by the centrifugal force. We found that the first core is a precursor of the circumstellar disk with a size of >3 AU. This means that unmagnetized protoplanetary disk smaller than <3 AU does not exist. Reflecting the thermodynamics of the collapsing gas, at the protostar formation epoch, the first core (or the circumstellar disk) has a mass of ∼0.005–0.1 M☉, while the protostar has a mass of ∼10−3 M☉. Thus, just after the protostar formation, the circumstellar disk is about 10–100 times more massive than the protostar. In the main accretion phase that lasts for ∼105 yr, the circumstellar disk mass initially tends to dominate the protostellar mass. Such a massive disk is unstable to gravitational instability and tends to show fragmentation. Our calculations indicate that the low-mass companions may form in the circumstellar disk in the main accretion phase. In addition, the mass accretion rate onto the protostar shows a strong time variability that is caused by the torque from the low-mass companions and/or the spiral arms in the circumstellar disk. Such variability provides an important signature for detecting the substellar mass companion in the circumstellar disk around very young protostars.