Mass Isotopomer Analysis Research Articles

Global alteration of T-lymphocyte metabolism by PD-L1 checkpoint involves a block of de novo nucleoside phosphate synthesis

Metabolic obstacles of the tumor microenvironment remain a challenge to T-cell-mediated cancer immunotherapies. To better understand the interplay of immune checkpoint signaling and immune metabolism, this study developed and used an optimized metabolite extraction protocol for non-adherent primary human T-cells, to broadly profile in vitro metabolic changes effected by PD-1 signaling by mass spectrometry-based metabolomics and isotopomer analysis. Inhibitory signaling reduced aerobic glycolysis and glutaminolysis. A general scarcity across the panel of metabolites measured supported widespread metabolic regulation by PD-1. Glucose carbon fate analysis supported tricarboxylic acid cycle reliance on pyruvate carboxylation, catabolic-state fluxes into acetyl-CoA and succinyl-CoA, and a block in de novo nucleoside phosphate synthesis that was accompanied by reduced mTORC1 signaling. Nonetheless, exogenous administration of nucleosides was not sufficient to ameliorate proliferation of T-cells in the context of multiple metabolic insufficiencies due to PD-L1 treatment. Carbon fate analysis did not support the use of primarily glucose-derived carbons to fuel fatty acid beta oxidation, in contrast to reports on T-memory cells. These findings add to our understanding of metabolic dysregulation by PD-1 signaling and inform the effort to rationally develop metabolic interventions coupled with immune-checkpoint blockade for increased treatment efficacy.

Compartmentation of Metabolism of the C12-, C9-, and C5-n-dicarboxylates in Rat Liver, Investigated by Mass Isotopomer Analysis: ANAPLEROSIS FROM DODECANEDIOATE

We investigated the compartmentation of the catabolism of dodecanedioate (DODA), azelate, and glutarate in perfused rat livers, using a combination of metabolomics and mass isotopomer analyses. Livers were perfused with recirculating or nonrecirculating buffer containing one fully (13)C-labeled dicarboxylate. Information on the peroxisomal versus mitochondrial catabolism was gathered from the labeling patterns of acetyl-CoA proxies, i.e. total acetyl-CoA, the acetyl moiety of citrate, C-1 + 2 of β-hydroxybutyrate, malonyl-CoA, and acetylcarnitine. Additional information was obtained from the labeling patterns of citric acid cycle intermediates and related compounds. The data characterize the partial oxidation of DODA and azelate in peroxisomes, with terminal oxidation in mitochondria. We did not find evidence of peroxisomal oxidation of glutarate. Unexpectedly, DODA contributes a substantial fraction to anaplerosis of the citric acid cycle. This opens the possibility to use water-soluble DODA in nutritional or pharmacological anaplerotic therapy when other anaplerotic substrates are impractical or contraindicated, e.g. in propionic acidemia and methylmalonic acidemia.

Hepatic Metabolism of 3‐Hydroxypropionate a Byproduct in Propionic Acidemia

Propionic acidemia (PA) is a rare autosomal recessive disorder leading to inhibition of propionate entering an anaplerotic pathway, via propionyl-CoA, of the citric acid cycle (CAC). PA is characterized by a defect in the conversion of propionyl-CoA to methylmalonyl-CoA through propionyl-CoA carboxylase (PCC). Decreased activity of PCC shunts propionyl-CoA into alternative metabolic pathways forming 3-hydroxypropionate (HPA), which increases in concentration to toxic levels. We investigated the metabolic fates of HPA in rat livers and heart using a combination of metabolomics studies and mass isotopomer analysis. Isolated rat organs were perfused with recirculating buffer containing 2 mM (un)labeled HPA ([13C3]), 2mM [1-13C]HPA, or 5mM [13C3]propionate. Additionally, perfusions were conducted using a combination of (un)labeled 2mM HPA and 5mM propionate. Perfusate and organ tissue were analyzed via GC-MS and LC-MS/MS. HPA was shown to be converted to acetyl-CoA, with loss of carbon-1 from HPA rather than enter into the CAC anaplerotically via propionyl-CoA. The proposed pathway of HPA conversion to malonyl-CoA was disproven using [13C3]HPA labeling studies. Instead β-alanine was labeled with further conversion to acetyl-CoA proposed. The newly identified metabolic pathway of HPA in the rat may play an important role in the detoxification of this compound.

Effect of Global ATGL Knockout on Murine Fasting Glucose Kinetics.

Mice deficient in adipose triglyceride lipase (ATGL−/−) present elevated ectopic lipid levels but are paradoxically glucose-tolerant. Measurement of endogenous glucose production (EGP) and Cori cycle activity provide insights into the maintenance of glycemic control in these animals. These parameters were determined in 7 wild-type (ATGL+/−) and 6 ATGL−/− mice by a primed-infusion of [U-13C6]glucose followed by LC-MS/MS targeted mass-isotopomer analysis of blood glucose. EGP was quantified by isotope dilution of [U-13C6]glucose while Cori cycling was estimated by analysis of glucose triose 13C-isotopomers. Fasting plasma free fatty-acids were significantly lower in ATGL−/− versus control mice (0.43 ± 0.05 mM versus 0.73 ± 0.11 mM, P < 0.05). Six-hour fasting EGP rates were identical for both ATGL−/− and control mice (79 ± 11 versus 71 ± 7 μmol/kg/min, resp.). Peripheral glucose metabolism was dominated by Cori cycling (80 ± 2% and 82 ± 7% of glucose disposal for ATGL−/− and control mice, resp.) indicating that peripheral glucose oxidation was not significantly upregulated in ATGL−/− mice under these conditions. The glucose 13C-isotopomer distributions in both ATGL−/− and control mice were consistent with extensive hepatic pyruvate recycling. This suggests that gluconeogenic outflow from the Krebs cycle was also well compensated in ATGL−/− mice.

Mass isotopomer analysis of nucleosides isolated from RNA and DNA using GC/MS.

Nucleosides are biosynthesized from metabolites that are at key nodes of intermediary metabolism. Therefore, (13)C labeling patterns in nucleosides from ribonucleic acid (RNA) and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) in suitably designed isotopic tracer studies provide information on metabolic flux distributions of proliferating cells. Here, we present a gas chromatography (GC)-mass spectrometry (MS)-based approach that permits one to exploit that potential. In order to elucidate positional isotopomers of nucleosides from RNA and DNA, we screened the fragmentation spectra of their trimethylsilyl derivatives. We identified the molecular ion moieties retained in the respective fragment ions, focusing particularly on the carbon backbone. Nucleosides fragmented at the N-glycosidic bond provide nucleobase and/or ribose or 2'-deoxyribose fragment ions and fragments thereof. Nucleoside fragments composed of the nucleobase plus some carbons of the ribose ring were also observed. In total, we unequivocally assigned 31 fragments. The mass-isotopic distribution of the assigned fragments provides valuable information for later (13)C metabolic flux analysis as indicated by a labeling experiment applying [1-(13)C]glucose in a yeast culture.

Modular isotopomer synthesis of γ-hydroxybutyric acid for a quantitative analysis of metabolic fates.

Herein we report a study combining metabolomics and mass isotopomer analysis used for investigation of the biochemical fate of γ-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB). Using various 13C incorporation labeling patterns into GHB, we have discovered that GHB is catabolized by previously unknown processes that include (i) direct β-oxidation to acetyl-CoA and glycolate, (ii) α-oxidation to 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA and formate, and (iii) cleavage of C-4 to yield 3-hydroxypropionate and CO2. We further utilized the unique attributes of our labeling patterns and the resultant isotopomers to quantitate relative flux down the identified pathways.

Proteomic analysis of altered extracellular matrix turnover in bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis.

Fibrotic disease is characterized by the pathological accumulation of extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins. Surprisingly, very little is known about the synthesis and degradation rates of the many proteins and proteoglycans that constitute healthy or pathological extracellular matrix. A comprehensive understanding of altered ECM protein synthesis and degradation during the onset and progression of fibrotic disease would be immensely valuable. We have developed a dynamic proteomics platform that quantifies the fractional synthesis rates of large numbers of proteins via stable isotope labeling and LC/MS-based mass isotopomer analysis. Here, we present the first broad analysis of ECM protein kinetics during the onset of experimental pulmonary fibrosis. Mice were labeled with heavy water for up to 21 days following the induction of lung fibrosis with bleomycin. Lung tissue was subjected to sequential protein extraction to fractionate cellular, guanidine-soluble ECM proteins and residual insoluble ECM proteins. Fractional synthesis rates were calculated for 34 ECM proteins or protein subunits, including collagens, proteoglycans, and microfibrillar proteins. Overall, fractional synthesis rates of guanidine-soluble ECM proteins were faster than those of insoluble ECM proteins, suggesting that the insoluble fraction reflected older, more mature matrix components. This was confirmed through the quantitation of pyridinoline cross-links in each protein fraction. In fibrotic lung tissue, there was a significant increase in the fractional synthesis of unique sets of matrix proteins during early (pre-1 week) and late (post-1 week) fibrotic response. Furthermore, we isolated fast turnover subpopulations of several ECM proteins (e.g. type I collagen) based on guanidine solubility, allowing for accelerated detection of increased synthesis of typically slow-turnover protein populations. This establishes the presence of multiple kinetic pools of pulmonary collagen in vivo with altered turnover rates during evolving fibrosis. These data demonstrate the utility of dynamic proteomics in analyzing changes in ECM protein turnover associated with the onset and progression of fibrotic disease.

Hepatic metabolism of 3‐hydroxypropionate, a toxic byproduct in propionic acidemia (590.2)

Propionic acidemia (PA) is a rare autosomal recessive disorder leading to inhibition of propionate entering an anaplerotic pathway, via propionyl‐CoA, of the citric acid cycle (CAC). PA is characterized by a defect in the conversion of propionyl‐CoA to methylmalonyl‐CoA through propionyl‐CoA carboxylase (PCC). Decreased activity of PCC shunts propionyl‐CoA into alternative metabolic pathways forming 3‐hydroxypropionate (3‐HPA), which increases in concentration to toxic levels. We investigated the metabolic fates of 3‐HPA in rat livers using the combination of metabolomics studies and mass isotopomer analysis. Isolated rat livers were perfused with recirculating buffer containing 2 mM (un)labeled 3‐HPA ([13C3] and [1‐13C]3‐HPA). Perfusate and liver tissue were analyzed via GC‐MS and LC‐MS/MS. 3‐HPA was shown to be converted to acetyl‐CoA, with loss of carbon‐1 from 3‐HPA rather than enter into the CAC anaplerotically via propionyl‐CoA. The proposed pathway of 3‐HPA conversion to malonyl‐CoA was disproven using [13C3] 3‐HPA labeling studies. Instead β‐alanine was labeled with further conversion to acetyl‐CoA proposed. The newly identified metabolic pathway of 3‐HPA in the rat liver may play important role in the detoxification of this compound.Grant Funding Source: Supported by CRTP T32 Training Grant

Compartmentation of azelate and glutarate metabolism in rat liver (982.5)

Azelate (C9) and glutarate (C5) are odd‐chain dicarboxylates. Azelate, derived from the oxidation of oleate, is an inhibitor of tyrosinase and thioredoxin reductase. The compartmentation of azelate metabolism and its final metabolic fates are not known. We investigated the metabolism of azelate in rat liver using a combination of metabolomics and mass isotopomer analysis. Isolated rat livers were perfused with 2 mM (un)labeled azelate or glutarate ([13C9]azelate or [13C5]glutarate) for 2 h in recirculating mode. Perfusate and liver were analyzed by GC‐MS and LC‐MS/MS. The data showed that: (i) azelate oxidation starts in peroxisomes, and ends in mitochondria; (ii) glutarate oxidation occurs only in mitochondria; (iii) azelate forms pimeloyl‐CoA and glutaryl‐CoA, but not malonyl‐CoA, (iv) an unknown reaction removes one carbon from azelaoyl‐CoA forming octanedioyl‐CoA, then hexanedioyl‐CoA, (v) the metabolism of glutarate to acetyl‐CoA via 3‐hydroxyglutaryl‐CoA, crotonyl‐CoA and S‐3‐hydroxybutyryl‐CoA is confirmed.Grant Funding Source: NIH R33DK07029 and Cleveland Mt. Sinai Health Care Foundation

Novel approach in LC-MS/MS using MRM to generate a full profile of acyl-CoAs: discovery of acyl-dephospho-CoAs

A metabolomic approach to selectively profile all acyl-CoAs was developed using a programmed multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) method in LC-MS/MS and was employed in the analysis of various rat organs. The programmed MRM method possessed 300 mass ion transitions with the mass difference of 507 between precursor ion (Q1) and product ion (Q3), and the precursor ion started from m/z 768 and progressively increased one mass unit at each step. Acyl-dephospho-CoAs resulting from the dephosphorylation of acyl-CoAs were identified by accurate MS and fragmentation. Acyl-dephospho-CoAs were also quantitatively scanned by the MRM method with the mass difference of 427 between Q1 and Q3 mass ions. Acyl-CoAs and dephospho-CoAs were assayed with limits of detection ranging from 2 to 133 nM. The accuracy of the method was demonstrated by assaying a range of concentrations of spiked acyl-CoAs with the results of 80-114%. The distribution of acyl-CoAs reflects the metabolic status of each organ. The physiological role of dephosphorylation of acyl-CoAs remains to be further characterized. The methodology described herein provides a novel strategy in metabolomic studies to quantitatively and qualitatively profile all potential acyl-CoAs and acyl-dephospho-CoAs.

Mass Isotopomer Analysis of Metabolically Labeled Nucleotide Sugars and N- and O-Glycans for Tracing Nucleotide Sugar Metabolisms

Nucleotide sugars are the donor substrates of various glycosyltransferases, and an important building block in N- and O-glycan biosynthesis. Their intercellular concentrations are regulated by cellular metabolic states including diseases such as cancer and diabetes. To investigate the fate of UDP-GlcNAc, we developed a tracing method for UDP-GlcNAc synthesis and use, and GlcNAc utilization using (13)C6-glucose and (13)C2-glucosamine, respectively, followed by the analysis of mass isotopomers using LC-MS. Metabolic labeling of cultured cells with (13)C6-glucose and the analysis of isotopomers of UDP-HexNAc (UDP-GlcNAc plus UDP-GalNAc) and CMP-NeuAc revealed the relative contributions of metabolic pathways leading to UDP-GlcNAc synthesis and use. In pancreatic insulinoma cells, the labeling efficiency of a (13)C6-glucose motif in CMP-NeuAc was lower compared with that in hepatoma cells. Using (13)C2-glucosamine, the diversity of the labeling efficiency was observed in each sugar residue of N- and O-glycans on the basis of isotopomer analysis. In the insulinoma cells, the low labeling efficiencies were found for sialic acids as well as tri- and tetra-sialo N-glycans, whereas asialo N-glycans were found to be abundant. Essentially no significant difference in secreted hyaluronic acids was found among hepatoma and insulinoma cell lines. This indicates that metabolic flows are responsible for the low sialylation in the insulinoma cells. Our strategy should be useful for systematically tracing each stage of cellular GlcNAc metabolism.

Metabolomics and Mass Isotopomer Analysis as a Strategy for Pathway Discovery: Pyrrolyl and Cyclopentenyl Derivatives of the Pro-Drug of Abuse, Levulinate

We recently reported that levulinate (4-ketopentanoate) is converted in the liver to 4-hydroxypentanoate, a drug of abuse, and that the formation of 4-hydroxypentanoate is stimulated by ethanol oxidation. We also identified 3 parallel β-oxidation pathways by which levulinate and 4-hydroxypentanoate are catabolized to propionyl-CoA and acetyl-CoA. We now report that levulinate forms three seven-carbon cyclical CoA esters by processes starting with the elongation of levulinyl-CoA by acetyl-CoA to 3,6-diketoheptanoyl-CoA. The latter γ-diketo CoA ester undergoes two parallel cyclization processes. One process yields a mixture of tautomers, i.e., cyclopentenyl- and cyclopentadienyl-acyl-CoAs. The second cyclization process yields a methyl-pyrrolyl-acetyl-CoA containing a nitrogen atom derived from the ε-nitrogen of lysine but without carbons from lysine. The cyclic CoA esters were identified in rat livers perfused with levulinate and in livers and brains from rats gavaged with calcium levulinate ± ethanol. Lastly, 3,6-diketoheptanoyl-CoA, like 2,5-diketohexane, pyrrolates free lysine and, presumably, lysine residues from proteins. This may represent a new pathway for protein pyrrolation. The cyclic CoA esters and related pyrrolation processes may play a role in the toxic effects of 4-hydroxypentanoate.

Finding mechanisms from metabolic signatures of disease

We seek to apply comprehensive metabolic analysis tools (sometimes called “metabolomics”) for understanding of mechanisms underlying chronic human diseases and conditions such as diabetes, obesity, and cardiovascular disease. Current approaches include analysis of metabolic flux by 13C NMR-based mass isotopomer analysis (in collaboration with Drs. Shawn Burgess and A. Dean Sherry and associates, Dallas, TX) and metabolic profiling of important groups of metabolic intermediates by both “targeted” and “unbiased” mass spectrometry (in collaboration with Drs. James Bain, Robert Stevens, Olga llkayeva, Brett Wenner, Michael Muehlbauer, Mark Butler, and David Millington at Duke). These tools have also been used to define mechanisms underlying development of peripheral insulin resistance in animals and humans. For example, we have recently identified perturbations of branched chain amino acid (BCAA) catabolism in multiple cohorts of insulin resistant humans compared to normally insulin sensitive controls and have translated these findings to rodent models to demonstrate a contribution of BCAA to development of insulin resistance that is independent of body weight. In collaboration with Dr. Alan Attie at the University of Wisconsin, we have integrated transcriptomic and metabolomic analysis in mouse models to identify new pathways that control hepatic gluconeogenesis and PEPCK expression. Finally, with Svati Shah and Bill Kraus at Duke, we have identified novel metabolic signatures of imminent cardiovascular events, and are integrating genomic and metabolomics analyses in large cohorts of human subjects with a high incidence of coronary artery disease to identify pathways involved in metabolic variability and risk of cardiovascular disease. These examples will serve to illustrate the potential of comprehensive metabolic profiling methods for providing insights into metabolic disease mechanisms.

Metabolism of γ-hydroxybutyrate in perfused rat livers

GHB (γ-hydroxybutyrate) is both a neurotransmitter and a drug of abuse (date-rape drug). We investigated the catabolism of this compound in perfused rat livers. Using a combination of metabolomics and mass isotopomer analysis, we showed that GHB is metabolized by multiple processes, in addition to its previously reported metabolism in the citric acid cycle via oxidation to succinate. A substrate cycle operates between GHB and γ-aminobutyrate via succinic semialdehyde. Also, GHB undergoes (i) β-oxidation to glycolyl-CoA+acetyl-CoA, (ii) two parallel processes which remove C-1 or C-4 of GHB and form 3-hydroxypropionate from C-2+C-3+C-4 or from C-1+C-2+C-3 of GHB, and (iii) degradation to acetyl-CoA via 4-phosphobutyryl-CoA. The present study illustrates the potential of the combination of metabolomics and mass isotopomer analysis for pathway discovery.

Dietary regulation of catabolic disposal of 4-hydroxynonenal analogs in rat liver

Our previous work in perfused rat livers has demonstrated that 4-hydroxynonenal (HNE) is catabolized predominantly via β oxidation. Therefore, we hypothesized that perturbations in β oxidation, such as diet-altered fatty acid oxidation activity, could lead to changes in HNE levels. To test our hypothesis, we (i) developed a simple and sensitive GC/MS method combined with mass isotopomer analysis to measure HNE and HNE analogs, 4-oxononenal (ONE) and 1,4-dihydroxynonene (DHN), and (ii) investigated the effects of four diets (standard, low-fat, ketogenic, and high-fat mix) on HNE, ONE, and DHN concentrations in rat livers. Our results showed that livers from rats fed the ketogenic diet or high-fat mix diet had high ω-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid concentrations and markers of oxidative stress. However, high concentrations of HNE (1.6±0.5nmol/g) and ONE (0.9 ±0.2nmol/g) were found only in livers from rats fed the high-fat mix diet. Livers from rats fed the ketogenic diet had low HNE (0.8±0.1nmol/g) and ONE (0.4±0.07nmol/g), similar to rats fed the standard diet. A possible explanation is that the predominant pathway of HNE catabolism (i.e., β oxidation) is activated in the liver by the ketogenic diet. This is consistent with a 10-fold decrease in malonyl-CoA in livers from rats fed a ketogenic diet compared to a standard diet. The accelerated catabolism of HNE lowers HNE and HNE analog concentrations in livers from rats fed the ketogenic diet. On the other hand, rats fed the high-fat mix diet had high rates of lipid synthesis and low rates of fatty acid oxidation, resulting in the slowing down of the catabolic disposal of HNE and HNE analogs. Thus, decreased HNE catabolism from a high-fat mix diet induces high concentrations of HNE and HNE analogs. The results of this work suggest a potential causal relationship to metabolic syndrome induced by Western diets (i.e., high-fat mix), as well as the effects of a ketogenic diet on the catabolism of lipid peroxidation products in liver.

Metabolism of Levulinate in Perfused Rat Livers and Live Rats: CONVERSION TO THE DRUG OF ABUSE 4-HYDROXYPENTANOATE

Calcium levulinate (4-ketopentanoate) is used as an oral and parenteral source of calcium. We hypothesized that levulinate is converted in the liver to 4-hydroxypentanoate, a new drug of abuse, and that this conversion is accelerated by ethanol oxidation. We confirmed these hypotheses in live rats, perfused rat livers, and liver subcellular preparations. Levulinate is reduced to (R)-4-hydroxypentanoate by a cytosolic and a mitochondrial dehydrogenase, which are NADPH- and NADH-dependent, respectively. A mitochondrial dehydrogenase or racemase system also forms (S)-4-hydroxypentanoate. In livers perfused with [(13)C(5)]levulinate, there was substantial CoA trapping in levulinyl-CoA, 4-hydroxypentanoyl-CoA, and 4-phosphopentanoyl-CoA. This CoA trapping was increased by ethanol, with a 6-fold increase in the concentration of 4-phosphopentanoyl-CoA. Levulinate is catabolized by 3 parallel pathways to propionyl-CoA, acetyl-CoA, and lactate. Most intermediates of the 3 pathways were identified by mass isotopomer analysis and metabolomics. The production of 4-hydroxypentanoate from levulinate and its stimulation by ethanol is a potential public health concern.

A simplified mass isotopomer approach to estimate gluconeogenesis rate in vivo using deuterium oxide

We compare a new simplified (2)H enrichment mass isotopomer analysis (MIA) against the laborious hexamethylentetramine (HMT) method to quantify the contribution of gluconeogenesis (GNG) to total glucose production (GP) in calves. Both methods are based on the (2)H labeling of glucose after in vivo administration of deuterium oxide. The (2)H enrichments of plasma glucose at different C-H positions were measured as aldonitrile pentaacetate (AAc) and methyloxime-trimethylsilyl (MoxTMS) derivatives or HMT by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). Two pre-ruminating fasted Holstein calves (51 kg body mass, BM, age 7 days) received two oral bolus doses of (2)H(2)O (10 g/kg BM, 70 atom% (2)H) at 7:00 h and 11:00 h after overnight food withdrawal. Blood samples for fractional GNG determination were collected at -24 and between 6 and 9 h after the first (2)H(2)O dose. The ratio of (2)H enrichments C5/C2 represents the contribution of GNG to GP. The (2)H enrichment at C2 was calculated based on the ion fragments at m/z 328 (C1-C6) - m/z 187 (C3-C6) of glucose AAc. The (2)H enrichment at C5 was approximated either by averaging the (2)H enrichment at C5-C6 using the ion fragment of glucose MoxTMS at m/z 205 or by conversion of the C5 of glucose into HMT. The fractional GNG calculated by the C5-C6 average (2)H enrichment method (41.4 +/- 6.9%) compared to the HMT method (34.3 +/- 11.4%) was not different (mean +/- SD, n = 6 replicates). In conclusion, GNG can be estimated with less laborious sample preparation by means of our new C5-C6 average (2)H enrichment method using AAc and MoxTMS glucose derivatives.

Comprehensive metabolic analysis for understanding of obesity and diabetes mechanisms

We seek to apply comprehensive metabolic analysis tools (sometimes called “metabolomics”) for understanding of mechanisms underlying chronic human diseases such as diabetes, obesity, and cardiovascular disease. Current approaches include analysis of metabolic flux by 13C NMR‐based mass isotopomer analysis (in collaboration with Drs. Shawn Burgess and A. Dean Sherry and associates, Dallas, TX) and metabolic profiling of important groups of metabolic intermediates by both “targeted” and “unbiased” mass spectrometry (in collaboration with Drs. James Bain, Robert Stevens, Olga Ilkayeva, Brett Wenner, Michael Muehlbauer, Mark Butler, and David Millington at Duke). These tools have been used to investigate the metabolic mechanisms underlying islet β‐cell dysfunction and development of peripheral insulin resistance in animals and humans. Studies in islet β‐cells have demonstrated a critical role of a pyruvate/isocitrate cycling pathway in generation of signals for insulin secretion, and impairment of this cycle associated with loss of β‐cell function. We have also recently identified perturbations of branched chain amino acid (BCAA) catabolism in obese, insulin resistant humans compared to normally insulin sensitive lean controls and have translated these findings to rodent models to demonstrate a contribution of BCAA to development of insulin resistance that is independent of body weight. Finally, in collaboration with Dr. Alan Attie at the University of Wisconsin, we have integrated transcriptomic and metabolomic analysis to identify new pathways that control hepatic gluconeogenesis and PEPCK expression. These examples will serve to illustrate the potential of comprehensive metabolic profiling methods for providing insights into diabetes and obesity mechanisms.

Catabolism of 4-Hydroxyacids and 4-Hydroxynonenal via 4-Hydroxy-4-phosphoacyl-CoAs

4-Hydroxyacids are products of ubiquitously occurring lipid peroxidation (C(9), C(6)) or drugs of abuse (C(4), C(5)). We investigated the catabolism of these compounds using a combination of metabolomics and mass isotopomer analysis. Livers were perfused with various concentrations of unlabeled and labeled saturated 4-hydroxyacids (C(4) to C(11)) or 4-hydroxynonenal. All the compounds tested form a new class of acyl-CoA esters, 4-hydroxy-4-phosphoacyl-CoAs, characterized by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry, accurate mass spectrometry, and (31)P-NMR. All 4-hydroxyacids with five or more carbons are metabolized by two new pathways. The first and major pathway, which involves 4-hydroxy-4-phosphoacyl-CoAs, leads in six steps to the isomerization of 4-hydroxyacyl-CoA to 3-hydroxyacyl-CoAs. The latter are intermediates of physiological beta-oxidation. The second and minor pathway involves a sequence of beta-oxidation, alpha-oxidation, and beta-oxidation steps. In mice deficient in succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase, high plasma concentrations of 4-hydroxybutyrate result in high concentrations of 4-hydroxy-4-phospho-butyryl-CoA in brain and liver. The high concentration of 4-hydroxy-4-phospho-butyryl-CoA may be related to the cerebral dysfunction of subjects ingesting 4-hydroxybutyrate and to the mental retardation of patients with 4-hydroxybutyric aciduria. Our data illustrate the potential of the combination of metabolomics and mass isotopomer analysis for pathway discovery.

Interrelations between C4 Ketogenesis, C5 Ketogenesis, and Anaplerosis in the Perfused Rat Liver

We investigated the interrelations between C(4) ketogenesis (production of beta-hydroxybutyrate + acetoacetate), C(5) ketogenesis (production of beta-hydroxypentanoate + beta-ketopentanoate), and anaplerosis in isolated rat livers perfused with (13)C-labeled octanoate, heptanoate, or propionate. Mass isotopomer analysis of C(4) and C(5) ketone bodies and of related acyl-CoA esters reveal that C(4) and C(5) ketogenesis share the same pool of acetyl-CoA. Although the uptake of octanoate and heptanoate by the liver are similar, the rate of C(5) ketogenesis from heptanoate is much lower than the rate of C(4) ketogenesis from octanoate. This results from the channeling of the propionyl moiety of heptanoate into anaplerosis of the citric acid cycle. C(5) ketogenesis from propionate is virtually nil because acetoacyl-CoA thiolase does not favor the formation of beta-ketopentanoyl-CoA from propionyl-CoA and acetyl-CoA. Anaplerosis and gluconeogenesis from heptanoate are inhibited by octanoate. The data have implications for the design of diets for the treatment of long chain fatty acid oxidation disorders, such as the triheptanoin-based diet.