Surface Of Mars Research Articles

Will SpaceX Send Humans to Mars in 2028?

In recent years, SpaceX posted several glossy websites claiming they would implement a very ambitious human mission to Mars as early as 2028. This is an innovative mission concept using several 100 MT “Starships” to transport multiple 100 MT payloads to the Mars surface and return the crew directly to Earth without a rendezvous. Although many details are not available, it has been revealed that it would utilize 1,200 MT of CH4 and O2 propellants in LEO, and an additional 1,200 MT of ISRU-generated CH4 + O2 propellants on Mars for the return flight. The landed crew would number 12. It would land about six Starships on Mars, requiring about 72 heavy lift launches to fuel the vehicles in LEO. The challenges include landing a 200 MT loaded Starship on Mars, a massive water-based ISRU system to provide propellants on Mars, and launching many vehicles within a launch window. While reducing mass was a central theme years ago, launch costs have decreased sharply, and reducing mass is no longer a priority. The SpaceX mission maximizes mass to reduce risk and maximize accomplishments. In this study, an attempt was made to determine whether mass allocations for such a mission are feasible. The results suggest that it might be theoretically possible for SpaceX to carry out a variety of such missions. However, the SpaceX mission faces herculean challenges and probably is at least three decades away. Nevertheless, the general approach is probably more relevant today than the NASA architectures generated so far. The claim of landing humans on Mars in 2028 seems overly ambitious.

Shielding factors for a fission-powered mars exploration rover

Background With the advances in compact fission power systems and Stirling converters, the efficiency and portability of electrical energy production systems has increased substantially thanks to NASA’s Kilopower project. These 1-10 kWe-class reactors are compact enough to be transportable by pressurized rovers, allowing an extended human reach across the surface of Mars to produce scientific data at a rate that greatly surpasses the rate of robotic rover data collection. If rovers were to harness fission power while mobile, it is possible for near-limitless range. This capability could allow one crew on Mars for under a “Conjunction” class mission as outlined in NASA’s Mars Design Reference Architecture (DRA) 5.0 to visit many geological sites of interest instead of requiring additional landings to explore distant features of the Martian surface. This study explored the parameters that affected the mass of the shielding required to protect the crew against a fission reactor embedded in the chassis of a pressurized rover. Methods An analytical approach was devised to estimate the required mass of a hypothetical solid tungsten shield under various conditions. Results Power levels below 3.4 kWe were found to be impractical for rover applications. Between 3.4 kWe and 10 kWe would be able to recharge the rover without returning to base camp. The increase in shielding mass from a 3.4 kWe reactor and a 10 kWe reactor was 6%. The reduction between a 10 kWe reactor at 3 m and 6 m was 7%. Varying the shield thickness in accordance with astronaut activities resulted in a 19% reduction. Powering the reactor off before exiting the vehicle resulted in an additional 65% reduction. Conclusions Knowledge of the crew activities and locations had the greatest impact on the required shielding mass and the mission activities should be well-understood and taken into account for shield design.

Some Approaches for Light and Color on the Surface of Mars

Some Approaches for Light and Color on the Surface of Mars

In-flight calibration of the MEDA-TIRS instrument onboard NASA's Mars2020 mission

This article describes a novel procedure and algorithm used for the in-flight calibration of the Thermal Infrared Sensor (TIRS) onboard the Mars 2020 mission. The purpose is to recalibrate the responsivity of TIRS’ IR detectors as they degrade following surface operations and exposure to harsh environmental conditions. Using data from in-flight calibration campaigns conducted through sol 800 of this mission, we report the time evolution of the responsivity for the different IR detectors, as well as the final performance achieved by the algorithm in the real operating environment. Moreover, we analyzed changes in responsivity as a function of TIRS geometric design and environmental factors, e.g., detector orientation, direct exposure to prevailing winds and solar radiation, electrostatic properties of the detector filter, and atmospheric dust concentration. We concluded that dust deposition on the detectors' filter during landing, and later during operation is the most likely cause of the degradation observed in the various channels, with gravitational sedimentation and the capacity of the filters to accumulate electrostatic charge being key factors. The relative and absolute degradation of the TIRS is similar to those reported by other Martian missions and instruments with similar orientations, and to date, it has shown no signs of cleaning after more than a year on the surface of Mars. Accounting for changes in responsivity during the mission is critical to maintaining the reliability of TIRS measurements, which will later be made available in NASA's Planetary Data System for the benefit of the scientific community.

The research of thermal environment test methodology for the Mars probe product

Abstract In order to ensure the success of the Mars exploration mission, it is necessary to accurately simulate the unique environment on the surface of Mars in a ground test and verify the effectiveness of the thermal control measures of the Mars rover. This paper proposes a thermal balance test method that can simultaneously simulate environmental factors such as Martian surface gas atmosphere, wind speed, pressure, solar radiation, and atmospheric temperature. This proposed test method meets the thermal design verification requirements of component-level products. Compared with similar large-scale facilities, the test cost is low, and the implementation efficiency is high. Furthermore, the influence of the Martian wind field on the surface temperature distribution of the product under both the Martian day and night environment was investigated using the proposed test method. The research results show that although the atmospheric pressure on the surface of Mars is much lower than the surface of the Earth, the Martian wind will still form forced convection heat transfer on the surface of the probe and its auxiliary products, which will affect the heat distribution of the products. In the thermal control design of the products, it is necessary to consider the impact of all the above environmental factors and carry out corresponding comprehensive environmental test verification.

Discovery of calcium sulfate at different hydration states on Mars - based on perseverance SHERLOC analysis

Organic matter on planets is often co-deposited with evaporites, and evaporation of lakes in the Jezero region of Mars may have led to the deposition of abundant organic matter and minerals such as sulfates, making sulfates important minerals for preserving the remains of potential life on Mars, especially in different hydration states, will help to invert the variability of the Martian environment and provide guidance for the exploration of life on Mars. Raman spectroscopy can detect the molecular composition of organic matter and acid anion information of the target of interest, thus enabling in situ analysis of life information and its living environment. In order to realize the detection of life remains on Mars, The Perseverance rover is equipped with SHERLOC in situ material detection payload, which adopts a 248.6 nm deep ultraviolet (DUV) laser to simultaneously excite Raman and fluorescence signals of the target. In this paper, five scans in three modes (survey scan, HDR scan and detail scan) from two sites on Mars (Quartier and Bellegarde) were selected for preliminary analysis, and the presence of sulfate minerals at these two sites was confirmed. The detail scans at Quartier were analyzed in depth, and the presence of four calcium sulfate minerals, gypsum (CaSO4∙2 H2O), bassanite (CaSO4∙0.5 H2O), anhydrite (β-CaSO4) and gamma-calcium sulfate (γ-CaSO4)was inferred from the states of ν1 (SO4), ν3 (SO4) and hydrated peaks. The differences in the degree of hydration of calcium sulfate minerals suggest that there may have been active water activity on Mars. By comparing data collected by SHERLOC with spectra from spectral libraries, the composition of small-scale structures on Mars may be assessable. However, due to the complexity of the Martian geology, more accurate water activity will need to be combined with more detailed ions, temperatures, humidity, and other conditions for a more precise analysis.

Radiation-Driven Destruction of Thiophene and Methyl-Substituted Thiophenes.

Thiophene and two derivatives (2-methylthiophene and 3-methylthiophene) have been detected on the surface of Mars with the Sample Analysis at Mars instrument suite onboard NASA's Curiosity rover. Thiophene could serve as a secondary chemical biosignature since the secondary biosynthesis of thiophene is considered an important production pathway. However, it is critical to understand the abiotic formation and destruction of thiophene and its derivatives since these pathways could affect the molecules' stabilities on planetary surfaces over geological timescales. Here, we present the radiolytic destruction kinetics of thiophene, 2-methylthiophene, and 3-methylthiophene as single-component ices and when diluted in water ice at low temperatures. Using infrared spectroscopy, we determined the destruction rate constants and extrapolated our radiolytic half-lives to the surface of Mars, assuming the measured and modeled surface dose rates. We found that our rate constants strongly depend on temperature and presence of water ice. Based on our determined radiolytic half-life for thiophene under conditions most similar to those of thiophene groups in Martian macromolecules, we expect thiophene to be stable on the surface for significantly longer than the Martian surface exposure age of sites in Gale crater where thiophenes have been detected.

Ozone Detector Based on Ultraviolet Observations on the Martian Surface

Ozone plays a key role in both atmospheric chemistry and UV absorption in planetary atmospheres. On Mars, upper-tropospheric ozone has been widely characterized by space-based instruments. However, surface ozone remains poorly characterized, hindered by the limited sensitivity of orbiters to the lowest scale height of the atmosphere and challenges in delivering payloads to the surface of Mars, which have prevented, to date, the measurement of ozone from the surface of Mars. Systematic measurements from the Martian surface could advance our knowledge of the atmospheric chemistry and habitability potential of this planet. NASA’s Mars 2020 mission includes the first ozone detector deployed on the Martian surface, which is based on discrete photometric observations in the ultraviolet band, a simple technology that could obtain the first insights into total ozone abundance in preparation for more sophisticated measurement techniques. This paper describes the Mars 2020 ozone detector and its retrieval algorithm, including its performance under different sources of uncertainty and the potential application of the retrieval algorithm on other missions, such as NASA’s Mars Science Laboratory. Pre-landing simulations using the UVISMART radiative transfer model suggest that the retrieval is robust and that it can deal with common issues affecting surface operations in Martian missions, although the expected low ozone abundance and instrument uncertainties could challenge its characterization in tropical latitudes of the planet. Other space missions will potentially include sensors of similar technology.

Urmia Lake: Water is the Gift of the Universe; Will it be Destroyed by us Humans?

With the hypothesis of the presence of water on Mars for years humans have invested hundreds of billions of dollars and researched it now by launching the Perseverance spacecraft and landing it on the surface of Mars they are looking forsigns of life on this planet.This is a sign of the importance of water for people and countries while without a doubt water means life and nothing survives without water.Of course the fate of the countries is decided by the water in these countries not the oil and oil condensates that cause the destruction of the planet day by day. Fresh and drinking water is a challenge in more than a hundred countries of the world and it is very difficult to meet the water needs of these countries This challenge has endangered human lives and all animal species and the environment and if serious action is not taken life on the planet will be destroyed.

Вертикальні провалені отвори до вулканічних печер на поверхні Марса

Studies of Mars have indicated the presence of caves of volcanic and possibly glacial origin on its surface. During volcanic eruptions, flows of lava flow out. As they cool, they are covered with a hard crust and form lava tubes. After the eruption is over, the lava flows out of the tubes at the lowest point and leaves the cavity. Therefore, lava caves are located on the slopes of volcanoes close to the surface. Sometimes their upper part collapses. A large part of the surface of Mars is covered with volcanic craters and mountain ranges. Dark, rounded spots were found in photographs of one of the volcanic plateaus of Tharsis. Their study showed that they are entrances to volcanic caves. The relative youth of these formations is indicated by the sharp edges of these dips. Lava tubes on Mars appear as straight chains of collapses with flat bottoms and nearly vertical slopes. Such objects should become the object of research by future settlers.

The 2022 February 15 Solar Energetic Particle Event at Mars: A Synergistic Study Combining Multiple Radiation Detectors on the Surface and in Orbit of Mars With Models

AbstractOn 2022‐02‐15, solar eruptions caused one of the most intensive Solar Particle Events (SPEs) in Solar Cycle 25 observed at various heliospheric locations. This study focuses on the enhancements of energetic proton flux observed by multiple detectors located at the orbit and on the surface of Mars. We carry out the first analysis by the Mars Energetic Particle Analyzer (MEPA) instrument on board the Chinese Tianwen‐1 spacecraft (TW‐1) at Mars orbit which also serves to validate the instrument's capability to measure protons of up to 100 MeV. We reconstruct the event spectrum up to 1 GeV and further model the event doses at Mars's orbit and surface which are then validated against the corresponding dosimetry data. Our study utilizes all available radiation detectors at Mars, advances our understanding of Mars's radiation environment induced by large SPEs, and emphasizes the necessity of continuous and synergistic radiation monitoring at Mars.

Space exploration in China

Abstract In the past 20 years, China has implemented Manned Space Engineering, Lunar and Mars exploration missions, becoming an active participant in human space travel and exploration. So far China has established its Space Station in 2022, continuing to carry out large-scale space science research for the next 10-15 years. China has successfully achieved the soft landing on the lunar, far side of the Moon and on the Mars surface, obtained 1.73 kg of lunar sample, and will also implement the lunar Antarctic sample return and Mars sample return mission later. The exploration missions for the asteroid and Jupiter system are being prepared. Overall the future science exportations and collaborations between human and robot, as well as the utilisation of extraterrestrial resources will become the new development focus. Chinese scientists eagerly look forward to close international collaboration.

Hydrothermal Fluid Activity on Mars Recorded in Phosphates of the Gabbroic Shergottite Northwest Africa 13581

AbstractApatites record crucial information on the origin, composition, and chemical evolution of volatiles on terrestrial planets. As a martian intrusive rock, the gabbroic shergottite Northwest Africa (NWA) 13581 provides key information on the volatile evolution related to magmatic processes in the interior, shedding light on the intricate volatile circulation on Mars. The textural and chemical characteristics of the phosphates in NWA 13581 indicate a complex formation history involving fractional crystallization, degassing, and fluid interaction. Degassing of the NWA 13581 parent melt is capable of exsolving chlorine‐rich fluids, resulting in the formation of notably fluorine‐rich apatite with a high x‐site occupancy of fluorine up to 90%. The degassed/exsolved volatile‐rich fluids could subsequently continue to migrate and interact with surrounding magmatic suites, leading to highly heterogeneous compositions of active fluids. The crystallization of apatite is initiated by the interaction of fluids with merrillite at the late stage of the magmatic process, leading to the formation of phosphate intergrowths. Influenced by the composition and chemical evolution of volatiles in fluids and melts, apatite exhibits notable variability in chlorine compositions both within individual grains and among different grains. Moreover, the presence of magnetite associated with phosphate intergrowth highlights the transportation of metallic components in addition to volatiles from deep layers to shallower depths or to the surface of Mars. This process, which is observed in young shergottites, indicates the persistent presence of hydrothermal systems until recent geological periods, contributing to the generation and circulation of volatiles within the martian interior and on the surface.

An Almost-All Digital Proximity Transceiver for Mars Surface Missions

An Almost-All Digital Proximity Transceiver for Mars Surface Missions

Selecting Erosion- and Deposition-Dominated Zones in the Jezero Delta Using a Water Flow Model for Targeting Future In Situ Mars Surface Missions

Identifying surface sites with significant astrobiological potential on Mars requires a comprehensive understanding of past geological processes and conditions there, including the shallow subsurface region. Numerical modelling could distinguish between regions dominated by erosion and those characterized by sediment accumulation in ancient wet environments. The target area of Jezero Crater is relatively well explored and thus is an ideal site to evaluate model calculations; however, important works are still missing on expectations related to its shallow subsurface . In this work, the best available approaches were followed, and only surface morphology was considered (supposedly formed by the last fluvial episode). The shallow subsurface became an important target recently, and this model could provide new inputs in this area. Erosion–accumulation models are suitable for terrestrial surface features, but few have been applied to Mars. This work addresses this challenge using the SIMWE (SIMulated Water Erosion) model on the Jezero Crater delta, the landing site of the Perseverance rover. For calculations, the average grain size according to the THEMIS TI data was applied to the target area. The flow depth varied between 1.89 and 34.74 m (average of 12.66 m). The water-filled channel width ranged from 35.3 to 341.42 m. A flow velocity of 0.008–11.6 m/s, a maximum erosion rate of 5.98 g/m2/h, and a deposition 4.07 g/m2/h were estimated. These calculated values are close to the range of estimations from other authors assuming precipitation of 1–20 mm/h and discharges of 60–400 m3/s. The model was able to distinguish between erosion- and accumulation-dominated areas about 1 m above Jezero Crater’s delta that are not visible from above. This model helps to identify the accumulation-dominated areas with the finest grain size with good preservation capability for the shallow but invisible subsurface.

Seasonality of aeolian landforms on Meridiani Planum, Mars

The wind interacts with the surface of Mars, forming aeolian landforms. The orientation of these landforms informs us about the formative wind directions. The observations of the orientation of aeolian landforms on Meridiani Planum between Mars years 26 and 38 indicated that there is a seasonality of formative wind directions in this region. The studied landforms were shaped by a predominant SE wind during summer, while during winter several wind directions played a role in their formation. Throughout the Mars year, the most formative were the NW winds. The presence of dark wind streaks oriented toward the west during winter indicates that E winds occur in this season on Meridiani Planum, as previously predicted by numerical simulations. It was also found that aeolian deflation led to complete erosion of smaller dunes, and that the relatively strong deflation was responsible for the scarcity of fine-grained ripples on Meridiani Planum. In this region, fine-grained ripples were found only in a few locations, and they were mainly small bedforms with wavelengths up to several centimeters.

Evidence for landslides in Sisyphi Cavi (Noachis Terra, Mars): Slope evolution and role of endogenous preparatory factors

The surface of Mars is characterized by the presence of numerous gravity-induced processes and mass movements with greatly variable sizes and peculiarities. Detailed geomorphological studies have recently made it possible to identify many landslide-like landforms along the slopes bordering pits of Sisyphi Cavi in Noachis Terra, the southern hemisphere of Mars. These pieces of evidence are generally characterized by extended trenches, sometimes associated with uphill- or downhill-facing scarps. In this study, the gravity-induced processes observed in this region of Mars, and especially those present in a closed pit of the eastern sector, are described for the first time. A quantitative stress-strain analysis was performed, and it excludes a type of deformation process that could invoke creep processes (“viscosity-driven”) but rather favors instability induced by stress-perturbations in the slope more concentrated over time (“force-driven”). In particular, we performed a parametric analysis on both viscosity and stiffness parameters of the materials involved. It demonstrates that the time necessary for the rheological evolution of deformational processes associated with the observed landforms are compatible with genesis of short-term instabilities. This finding has significant implications for the origin of the depressed forms within and close to the study area, which are characterized by unstable slopes present at their edges. It is therefore not necessary to invoke the role of “viscosity-driven” creep processes to explain the origin of the shapes associated with the observed gravity-induced slope instabilities. The reported results drive towards a new interpretative scenario of morphological evolution of the widespread pits in the study area in terms of efficiency of endogenous processes (such as hypabyssal magmatism) which characterize the studied area of Mars, even if it is not possible to exclude the role of exogenous processes.

Exploring the dielectric loss of Martian regolith in the frequency domain using Zhurong radar data

Martian regolith is one of the primary science objectives of Mars exploration missions. The Rover Penetrating Radar carried by Zhurong rover allows for high-resolution subsurface imaging and in-situ measurements of Martian regolith dielectric properties, which are crucial to advance our understanding of Martian geology and hydrological evolution. While earlier studies have derived dielectric constants for the shallow subsurface, further characterization of subsurface materials requires the determination of attenuation properties. In this study, we applied the centroid-frequency shift method to explore the attenuation property of the Martian regolith in the frequency domain. Lateral attenuation variation was analyzed in detail by integrating subsurface radargram and navigation terrain images. The results show that, within a depth of ∼4 m, the attenuation of radar signal for Zhurong subsurface material is equal to a loss tangent of 0.0079, with a standard deviation of 0.001. Based on the loss tangent value, dielectric permittivity and ground characterization, we preclude the possibility that the regolith is predominantly igneous materials. The lateral variation of the attenuation property could likely be attributed to changes in the proportion of duricrusts, which are heterogeneously distributed along the rover traverse. Our findings offer valuable information for understanding the Martian regolith and its evolution, serving as a important reference for future Mars sample return missions.

Volatile Elements Characterized by MarSCoDe in Materials at Zhurong Landing Site

The study of volatile elements on the Martian surface is a critical way to explore the geological evolution history of Mars. Volatile elements such as hydrogen (H), sulfur (S), and chlorine (Cl) on the Martian surface act as proxies for the potential aqueous or atmospheric environments that formed their corresponding phases. In this work, data collected from the Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy and the Short Wave Infrared Spectroscopy of the Mars Surface Composition Detection onboard the Zhurong rover are employed to analyze the volatile elements (H, S, Cl) and their carriers in materials throughout the landing site. We found that S primarily concentrates in gypsum and other sulfates, and the carriers of H include hydrous mineral combinations such as gypsum, hydrated silica, and ferrihydrite. These altered minerals are probably the products of acid weathering processes, which may have occurred mostly during the relatively humid period of the Zhurong landing site since Amazonian.

About the improvement in Mars Polar Motion determination from radio tracking of two landers

The polar motion of Mars is defined as the movement of the rotation axis with respect to a body-fixed frame tied to the crust of the planet. It is composed of forced motion at annual and sub-annual frequencies caused by the seasonal mass redistribution, formation of the polar ice caps and angular momentum variations of the atmosphere, and of the free mode called the Chandler wobble.Radio-tracking data from landers offers the most suitable means to measure the rotation of Mars, including its polar motion. The latter, however, has not yet been achieved using lander data alone. In this study, we assess the uncertainties associated with Mars polar motion estimation using Direct-To-Earth Doppler, range and Same-Beam Interferometry (SBI) observables between multiple landers on the surface of Mars. We evaluate the improvement enabled by combining data from multiple landers with respect to one-lander scenarios, and identify the optimal mission architectures for polar motion estimation by considering the influence of respective mission parameters on the estimation uncertainty. In particular, we consider the effects of absolute and relative locations of the landers and of mission scheduling. We re-evaluate the possibility of estimating the polar motion using data from landers in proximity to the equator, and apply our considerations to simulated data consistent in number and accuracy with that collected by past Martian missions. We notice and explain a strong longitude dependence of the formal errors when the polar motion parameters are estimated concurrently with the seasonal spin variation parameters, making it impossible to properly determine all components of polar motion with a single lander regardless of its location. However, the use of two or more landers in optimal locations with respect to each other eliminates those limitations. We evaluate the influence of latitudinal and longitudinal separation on polar motion determination in such cases. In particular, we are able to determine polar motion well even in cases where the longitudes of the two landers make determination from each single lander impossible.