Marmara Lake Research Articles

Analysis of landscape structure changes in Marmara Lake and its surrounding area using remote sensing data

This study investigates temporal changes in the landscape structure of Lake Marmara (Gölmarmara, Manisa, Türkiye), a designated bird sanctuary and registered wetland, over 10 years period using remote sensing techniques. The analysis employed the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) on satellite imagery from 2015 and 2024, processed through the ArcGIS/ArcMap software, to assess landscape metrics within the study area. The Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI) was also utilized to evaluate the interactions between the water body, wetlands, and their surroundings. The findings were further supported by surface temperature analysis (STA) and comparative data. NDVI analysis revealed a 39.38% reduction in the Lake Marmara water body, an 11.09% decrease in forested areas, and an 8.28% decline in tree/shrub areas over 10 years. The dominant tree species in the forest vegetation was Pinus brutia, while other prevalent species included Quercus coccifera, Cistus creticus, Pistacia terebinthus, Pistacia lentiscus, Arbutus andrachne, Arbutus unedo, Olea europaea, Erica arborea, Phillyrea latifolia, and Sarcopoterium spinosum. Conversely, residential areas expanded by 21.21%, and agricultural areas increased by 4.11%. NDWI analysis indicated a 14.46% reduction in moderately dry areas and a 41.92% increase in dry areas. Furthermore, surface temperature data showed an increase over the 10 years. This study is expected to contribute significantly to the field by providing insights into sustainable land use and planning strategies. It offers a comprehensive perspective on wetland management and conservation of biological diversity by elucidating the temporal and spatial relationships between wetlands and their environment, considering both ecological and anthropogenic factors.

Ottoman Lakes and Fluid Landscapes: Environing, Wetlands and Conservation in the Marmara Lake Basin, Circa 1550–1900

The study of Ottoman lakes and wetlands from the perspective of management and conservation is an emerging field. Scholars have explored Ottoman strategies for managing agricultural and extractive landscapes, yet detailed investigation of socio-political responses to dynamic wetlands, particularly during periods of drastic climate shifts, requires deeper investigation. Our research on wetlands and lakes moves from the purview of waqf s (pious foundations) to the emergence of the Ottoman Public Debt Administration (OPDA). By examining the shifting perspectives of institutional authority and community responses to it from the early modern period to the nineteenth century, we discuss the complexities of wetland management in the Marmara Lake Basin within the sancak of Saruhan (contemporary Manisa) in western Anatolia. We argue that intimate knowledge of this specific ecosystem played a critical role in mitigating attempts at reclamation and land grabbing and ultimately in developing legal structures of and policies for Ottoman conservation strategies. We situate our discussion within the paradigm of environing made possible by detailed longue-durée archival narratives; these micro-histories afford a dynamic perspective into non-linear responses to ecological and political changes and provide a local lens into the scalar impacts of human agency.

Spatial Change Analysis Using Object Based Classification Method for Sustainable Lake Basin Management in Adaptation to Climate Change in Marmara Lake

Akdeniz Havzası’nda yer alan Türkiye coğrafi konumu itibariyle iklim değişikliğinden en fazla etkilenen ülkelerden birisidir. İklim değişikliği başta su kaynakları olmak üzere birçok doğal ve beşerî sistemi olumsuz yönde etkilemektedir. Bunlar içerisinde sulak alanlar sahip oldukları zengin biyolojik çeşitlilik nedeni ile dünyanın en önemli ekosistemlerinden biridir. Son yıllarda gerek kuraklık gerekse sulak alanların bilinçsiz kullanımı ve yönetimi sulak alanların yok olma sürecini hızlandırmaktadır. Bu çalışmada iklim değişikliğinin Türkiye’nin önemli sulak alanlarıdan birisi olan Marmara Gölü’nde mekânsal değişime etkisi 2013-2023 yılları arasında uzaktan algılama veri ve metotları kullanılarak ve arazi çalışmalarından elde edilen bulgularla analiz edilecektir. Çalışmada veri olarak Landsat 8 OLI ve Sentinel 2 uydu görüntüleri; metot olarak ise Arc GIS Pro yazılımında Nesne Tabanlı Sınıflandırma Yöntemi uygulanacaktır. Çalışmanın sürdürülebilir kalkınma ilkeleri doğrultusunda “İklim Eylemi”, “Sudaki Yaşam” ve “Sürdürülebilir Şehirler ve Topluluklar” hedeflerine uygun sürdürülebilir göl havzası yönetimine güncel ve farklı bir bakış açısı sunarak literatüre katkı sağlaması amaçlanmaktadır.

Ottoman Lakes and Fluid Landscapes: Environing, Wetlands and Conservation in the Marmara Lake Basin, Circa 1550–1900

The study of Ottoman lakes and wetlands from the perspective of management and conservation is an emerging field. Scholars have explored Ottoman strategies for managing agricultural and extractive landscapes, yet detailed investigation of socio-political responses to dynamic wetlands, particularly during periods of drastic climate shifts, requires deeper investigation. Our research on wetlands and lakes moves from the purview of waqf s (pious foundations) to the emergence of the Ottoman Public Debt Administration (OPDA). By examining the shifting perspectives of institutional authority and community responses to it from the early modern period to the nineteenth century, we discuss the complexities of wetland management in the Marmara Lake Basin within the sancak of Saruhan (contemporary Manisa) in western Anatolia. We argue that intimate knowledge of this specific ecosystem played a critical role in mitigating attempts at reclamation and land grabbing and ultimately in developing legal structures of and policies for Ottoman conservation strategies. We situate our discussion within the paradigm of environing made possible by detailed longue-durée archival narratives; these micro-histories afford a dynamic perspective into non-linear responses to ecological and political changes and provide a local lens into the scalar impacts of human agency.

GIS Analysis of spatial-temporal variation of the ecological risk caused by element and organic pollutants in Lake Marmara (TURKIYE)

Located in western Anatolia (Turkey), Lake Marmara is a wetland with high ecological value. Lake Marmara, which was exposed to intense anthropogenic effects after 1940, is experiencing ecological deterioration in recent years. This study aimed to analyze the ecological risk level of the lake by using Enrichment Factor (EF), Toxic Risk Index (TRI), Modified Potential Ecological Risk Index (mER) etc. The research hypothesized that the discharge of water from the Gediz River and Kum Stream to the lake after 1940 triggered ecological risk problems. Moderate toxic risk, low potential ecological risk, moderate element contamination were detected throughout the lake. It was determined that Mo, P and Hg of anthropogenic origin and As, Ni, Cr, Cu of lithological origin created ecological risk at a regional scale. Domestic-industrial wastes and agriculture in the Gediz River basin and around the lake were identified as the dominant anthropogenic activity. The temporal variation of the ecological risk indices based on the elements did not reflect the anthropogenic traces of water discharge into the lake from the Gediz River basin. However, the temporal variation of TOC, N, P and CDP showed the effects of anthropogenic interventions in the lake. According to the threshold values; P is highly contaminated and N is close to the severely contaminated limit. The findings, while confirming the research hypothesis, showed that the dominant ecological risk factor in Lake Marmara is not elemental contamination, but organic pollutants, nitrogen and phosphate.

Vegetation History of Lake Marmara (W. Türkiye) and Surrounding Area during the Last 700 Years

In this study, a 65 cm long sediment core was obtained for pollen analysis from Lake Marmara situated in the west of Türkiye. The bottom sediment was dated by one AMS radiocarbon date on bulk organic carbon. Thus, the core provides information about the vegetation history of the lake for the last 700 years. Palynological evidence indicates that the vegetation around the lake basin was dominated by Quercus (evergreen oaks) and Pinus. The presence of Olea, Juglans, and Poaceae pollen grains reveals that this forest vegetation was interrupted from time to time by human impact. The existence of the non-arboreal Taraxacum and Plantago in the uppermost zones of the pollen diagram also indicates grazing or deterioration of the vegetation cover in this region from 1568 AD to the present.

Comparison between random forest and support vector machine algorithms for LULC classification

Nowadays, machine learning (ML) algorithms have been widely chosen for classifying satellite images for mapping Earth's surface. Support Vector Machine (SVM) and Random Forest (RF) stand out among these algorithms with their accurate results in the literature. The aim of this study is to analyze the performances of these algorithms on land use and land cover (LULC) classification, especially wetlands which have significant ecological functions. For this purpose, Sentinel-2 satellite image, which is freely provided by European Space Agency (ESA), was used to monitor not only the open surface water body but also around Marmara Lake. The performance evaluation was made with the increasing number of the training dataset. 3 different training datasets having 10, 15, and 20 areas of interest (AOI) per class, respectively were used for the classification of the satellite images acquired in 2015 and 2020. The most accurate results were obtained from the classification with RF algorithm and 20 AOIs. According to obtained results, the change detection analysis of Marmara Lake was investigated for possible reasons. Whereas the water body and wetland have decreased more than 50% between 2015 and 2020, crop sites have increased approximately 50%.

A comparison of growth of a vulnerable species, common carp, Cyprinus carpio (Actinopteri: Cyprinidae), from two different reservoir types in the same river basin

Context The mechanisms underlying regional differences in growth parameters of common carp, Cyprinus carpio Linnaeus, 1758 (Actinopteri: Cyprinidae), are not yet fully understood, because comparisons among them have been made post hoc. Aims To simultaneously compare growth of common carp between sexes and between regions: Demirköprü Reservoir (DR) and Marmara Lake (ML), which have different structures (lowland type vs highland type) and are proximate to each other in the same river basin (Gediz River Basin). Methods Length-frequency distributions, length–weight relationships and three growth models (von Bertalanffy growth function (VBGF), Gompertz growth function (GGF) and Robertson growth function (RGF)) were used for both sexes and all individuals in reservoirs. Key results As none of the best-fitting models used among these growth models clearly suggested a ‘clear winner’ (Akaike’s weight (wi) > 0.9), the model-averaged multi-model inference (MMI) was used for the first time for common carp. Conclusions Asymptotic length obtained from MMI for all individuals in ML (lowland type) was statistically higher than that in DR (highland type) (P < 0.05). Implications Based on the maximum observed length and the mean L∞ obtained from MMI, the common carp population in the DR can be considered threatened by overfishing.

Evaluating Impact of Land Use and Land Cover Change Under Climate Change on the Lake Marmara System

Evaluating Impact of Land Use and Land Cover Change Under Climate Change on the Lake Marmara System

Determination and Estimation of Water Surface Change With Landsat Data and Machine Learning Algorithms; A Case Study in Lake Marmara

Water resources play an important role in the continuity of life. Therefore, it is necessary to map water resources and monitor changes. Remote sensing technologies provide important data in the monitoring, control, and protection studies of water resources. These data are important for planners in studies related to water bodies. In this study, the change of the water surface of Marmara Lake, located in Gölmarmara district, 70 km from Manisa, was determined. In addition, an estimation study of the future spatial change of Marmara Lake was carried out. In this direction, the surface areas were obtained as a result of the analysis of the Landsat 7 images of the study area for the years 2002-2021 with the unsupervised classification method. In addition, precipitation, temperature, and LST data of the area were obtained with the help of Google Earth Engine. RBF Regressor, Linear Regression, Additive Regression, and MultiLayer PerceptronCS methods were used to make the most accurate estimation using the data obtained. Using the data between 2002 and 2012, the change between 2013 and 2021 was determined. When the results were examined, it was observed that the best estimation was obtained with MultiLayer Perceptron CS with R2= 0.91. As a result of the estimation study carried out for the years 2022 and 2026 with this method, it is predicted that the lake will shrink much more and reach 1.56 km2.

Uzatma ağlarında ip kalınlığının Marmara Gölü’ndeki sazan (Cyprinus carpio Linnaeus, 1758) avcılığında av verimi ve seçicilik üzerine etkisi

The effects of multifilament gillnet twine thickness on selectivity and catching efficiency for the common carp fishery were investigated in this study. Sampling was carried out with multifilament gillnets of two different twine thicknesses (with 210d/2 and 210d/3) on 140, 150, 160, 180, 200 mm mesh sizes between June 2015 and December 2016 in Marmara Lake, located in Western Turkey. Higher modal lengths and lower catch per unit effort (CPUE) values and lower sub-minimum landing size (MLS) individuals rate (excluding 180 and 200 mm mesh sizes) were obtained in the thick multifilament material (210d/3) with the same mesh size compared to thin material (210d/2). All mesh sizes in both twine thickness provided modal lengths above the MLS. However, the thin twine material had a higher nominal percentage of undersized fish (8%), greater than the 5% accepted limit for total catches when all mesh sizes are considered together. As a result, the modal lengths and spread values increased and the selectivity and catching efficiency decreased with the thicker twine material.

Marmara Gölü (Batı Anadolu/Türkiye)’nde sazanın (Cyprinus carpio Linnaeus 1758) üreme biyolojisinin bazı özellikleri

There is a knowledge gap in some lakes of Turkey regarding the reproductive biology of the common carp (Cyprinus carpio Linnaeus, 1758), a very important freshwater commercial species. This study aims to determine for the first time the spawning period and length at first maturity (Lm50) from the reproductive characteristics of common carp in Marmara Lake in Western Turkey. A total of 650 individuals were sampled between December 2015 and November 2016. The sex ratio (♂:♀) was calculated as 0.88:1 (p

Growth parameters of invasive gibel carpCarassius gibelio(Bloch, 1782) in Lake Marmara (Turkey)

AbstractThe objective of this study was to determine growth parameters, such as age–length and length–weight relationships, as well as condition factors and sex ratio, of theCarassius gibelio(Bloch, 1782) population in Lake Marmara (western region of Turkey), which is one of the most important fishing areas. Fish were caught on a monthly basis by gillnets and trammel nets (mesh size 10–50 mm) between March 2012 and February 2013. A total of 1058 specimens (809 females and 249 males) were examined. The female–male ratio was 1:0.31. The maximum age was determined as VI and V for females and males, respectively. The total length of females and males ranged from 10.0 to 27.5 cm and from 10.2 to 24.0 cm, respectively. Their weight varied from 17.1 to 378.4 g and from 17.7 to 244.9 g, respectively. Length–weight relationship parameters werea= 0.014 andb= 3.040 for females anda= 0.015 andb= 3.039 for males. Von Bertalanffy growth parameters of theC. gibeliopopulation were as follows: L∞= 35.86 cm, k = 0.189 year−1, t0= −1.238 years. Minimum and maximum condition factors were 1.56 for females in October and 1.82 in May and 1.67 for males in September and 1.94 in January.

Why Is The Marmara Lake Drying?

Marmara Gölü; Ege Bölgesinde, Gediz Havzası içerisinde bulunan ilk aşamada doğal, ancak sonraki dönemlerde seddelenmesi suretiyle tarımsal rezervuar niteliği kazanan bir göldür. Göl, 2002 yılında sulak alan kategorisinde yer almış, 2017 yılında Ulusal Öneme Haiz Sulak Alan olarak tescillenmiştir. Gölde 26 alg türü, 6 zooplankton türü, 11 balık türü, 33 iki yaşamlı türü, 162 kuş türü, 32 memeli türü ve 355 bitki türü tespit edilmiştir. Bunların yanında göl, yaklaşık 2700 kişiye tarım ve balıkçılık alanında kaynak oluşturmaktadır. Ancak son birkaç yıldır ülkemizdeki diğer sulak alanlar gibi Marmara Gölü de kuruyarak küçülmeye başlamıştır. 2011-2018 yılları arasında göl alanında %38 oranda (2116 ha) bir küçülme gözlenmiştir. Yapılan çalışmada göl alanındaki çekilme sebepleri, kamu kurum ve kuruluşlarınca yapılan resmi çalışma ve ölçümler ışığında doğal ve beşeri faktörler olarak iki kısımda incelenmiştir. Çalışma sonucunda Marmara Gölünün kurumasındaki doğal faktörlerin iklim değişikliklerine dayandığı, beşeri faktörlerin ise yanlış/eksik su yönetim politikaları ve Gördes Barajı temelli havzalar arası su transferi projesine dayandığı tespit edilmiştir.

A Lower Paleolithic assemblage from western Anatolia: The lithics from Bozyer

In 2005 the Central Lydia Archaeological Survey (CLAS) identified an open-air Lower Paleolithic site called Bozyer near Lake Marmara in the province of Manisa, Turkey. Intensive survey of Bozyer in 2008 resulted in collection of over 300 stone tools. Subsequent systematic analysis attributed 189 of these lithics to a Lower Paleolithic industry. The assemblage is characterized by flakes and retouched flake tools, many of which were produced with the bipolar flaking technique; preferential use of locally available quartz and quartzite over chert; a low proportion of cores, most of which were reused as choppers and chopping tools; and the absence of bifaces and other large cutting tools. With few exceptions, similar assemblages are rare in Anatolia, and comparable industries from Eurasia and the Near East date to the Early Pleistocene period. The lithic industry from Bozyer thus joins other nearby sites in evidencing some of the earliest hominin activities outside Africa, shedding new light on growing understandings of Lower Paleolithic technology, mobility, and activities in Anatolia.

Exploring Space, Economy, and Interregional Interaction at a Second-Millennium B.C.E. Citadel in Central Western Anatolia: 2014–2017 Research at Kaymakçı

Current understandings of the archaeology of second-millennium B.C.E. central western Anatolia are enriched by ongoing research at Kaymakçı, located in the Marmara Lake basin of the middle Gediz River valley in western Turkey. Discovered during regional survey in 2001, the site offers a critical node of exploration for understanding a previously unexamined period in a well-traversed geography thought to be the core of the Late Bronze Age Seha River Land known from Hittite texts. Here we present results from the first three seasons of excavation on the citadel of Kaymakçı plus a study season (2014-2017), introducing the site's chronology, historical and regional context, and significance through presentation of excavation areas as well as material and subsistence economies. With reference to such evidence, we discuss the site's development, organization, and interregional interactions, demonstrating its place in local and regional networks that connected Aegean and central Anatolian spheres of interest.

Geochemistry of Marmara Lake sediments - Implications for Holocene environmental changes in Western Turkey

Beginning from the Early Holocene marked environmental changes have been revealed by a multi-proxy study of two radiocarbon-dated sediment cores from Lake Marmara. Both cores are composed of fine clastic sediments deposited over the last 1845 years. The core taken from the western depocentre supplementary consists of a 20 cm thick interval which represents a time period of 10.28 to 8.28ka yrBP. A desiccation event caused 6435 year hiatus in the sedimentary record. The lake was established again at 1.85ka yrBP. After a transitional humid phase at the beginning of the Late Holocene, overall arid conditions were continuously effective.Especially the difference between the geochemical composition of Early and Late Holocene sediments indicates distinctive environmental conditions. Respective humid phases took place in between 10.28 and 8.28ka yrBP (Early Holocene) and 1.85 to 1.72ka yrBP (Late Holocene). The Early Holocene phase is characterized by higher fluvial activity controlled by the humid climate and active tectonics. Right after the Middle Holocene droughts, a short-termed tendency to relatively fresh and oxic conditions prevailed. However, the small surface area of the lake and its shallow conditions caused fast variations of hydrology, oxidation level, salinity and organic productivity during the last 1850 years. We suggest that a combination of the instability of the Eastern Mediterranean climate and local conditions is the main control on the changing paleo-environment during the study period.

Cup-Marks and Citadels: Evidence for Libation in 2nd-Millennium B.C.E. Western Anatolia

Shallow conical depressions hewn into bedrock, known as cup-marks, have been documented at and around 2nd-millennium B.C.E. citadels in the Marmara Lake basin of the Gediz Valley, western Anatolia. These rupestral features are among the best indications of the presence of libation ceremonies in the region and provide evidence that local communities shared in cultural traditions spread over western and central Anatolia. Libation rituals in the basin were probably intended to summon the divine for protection, stewardship of the dead, and/or assurance of agricultural prosperity through maintenance of stable environmental conditions. Periodic catastrophes, resulting from massive inundations and/or droughts typical to the region, weigh in favor of an environmental interpretation. We frame our discussion of the topography and archaeology of the Gediz Valley and the evidence for Middle to Late Bronze Age cup-marks within the context of historical geography and the archaeology of Anatolia.

The Story of a Forgotten Kingdom? Survey Archaeology and the Historical Geography of Central Western Anatolia in the Second Millenniumbc

This article presents previously unknown archaeological evidence of a mid-second-millenniumbckingdom located in central western Anatolia. Discovered during the work of the Central Lydia Archaeological Survey in the Marmara Lake basin of the Gediz Valley in western Turkey, the material evidence appears to correlate well with text-based reconstructions of Late Bronze Age historical geography drawn from Hittite archives. One site in particular—Kaymakçı—stands out as a regional capital and the results of the systematic archaeological survey allow for an understanding of local settlement patterns, moving beyond traditional correlations between historical geography and capital sites alone. Comparison with contemporary sites in central western Anatolia, furthermore, identifies material commonalities in site forms that may indicate a regional architectural tradition if not just influence from Hittite hegemony.

Risk screening of non-native and translocated freshwater fish species in a Mediterranean-type shallow lake: Lake Marmara (West Anatolia)

Risk screening tools to identify species with a high or low risk of invasiveness are being increasingly used for effective management purposes. Amongst the available tools, the Fish Invasiveness Screening Kit (FISK) has been used extensively and successfully in large risk assessment (RA) areas, and was recently upgraded to the new generic tool Aquatic Species Invasiveness Screening Kit (AS-ISK). The aim of the present study was to assess with AS-ISK the invasive potential of introduced non-native and translocated fishes in a Mediterranean-type shallow lake (Lake Marmara) located in west Anatolia (Turkey). Based on independent evaluations of 35 species by two assessors, calibration of AS-ISK resulted in a threshold score of -3.65, which reliably distinguished between potentially invasive (high risk) and potentially non-invasive (medium to low risk) fishes. Of the 35 species assessed, 17 were categorised as ‘low risk’ and included native/endemic and translocated natives, and the remaining 18 as ‘high risk’ and comprised non-natives and translocated natives. Carassius gibelio had the highest score in the Climate Change Assessment section, suggesting that it might potentially impact on the native fish fauna under likely climate change scenarios for the RA area. Some cool water non-native (Oncorhynchus mykiss, Salvelinus fontinalis), translocated native (Luciobarbus lydianus) and endemic species (Ladigesocypris mermere) in the catchment will likely be affected negatively by predicted climate change conditions.