Maritime Security Research Articles

Vietnam’s hedging amid U.S.-China Mekong rivalry: risk management under uncertainties

This paper examines how Vietnam has navigated U.S.-China rivalry in the Mekong basin while seeking to ensure its security, prosperity, and autonomy. I use the theoretical lens of hedging, defined as an insurance-maximising behaviour under conditions of high uncertainty. While existing scholarship has extensively examined Vietnam’s hedging on maritime security issues and the broader U.S.-China strategic and economic competition, this paper makes an empirical contribution by focusing on the relatively understudied angle of hedging in the Mekong basin context. I argue that Vietnam has hedged by (1) diversifying its Mekong partnerships with both the United States and China and (2) selectively cooperating with China under the Lancang-Mekong Cooperation. These acts aim to minimise Vietnam’s exposure to the long-term consequences of several non-traditional security risks, namely ecological challenges, water insecurity, economic vulnerabilities, and energy insecurity. Vietnam’s Mekong hedging also insures against the traditional security risks of big-power entrapment and military aggression as U.S.-China competition intensifies.

Lesson Learned Lee Hsien Loong's Strategic Leadership on Maritime Security at Malacca Strait Choke Point

This article explores the lessons learned from Lee Hsien Loong’s strategic leadership in maintaining maritime security in the Straits of Malacca, a vital chokepoint for global traffic. Through an analysis of the strategies implemented, including trilateral collaboration through the Malacca Strait Patrols (MSP), the use of advanced surveillance technology, and strengthening military capacity, the article identifies key measures that contributed to security stability. It also evaluates the relevance of lessons from Singapore’s experience to other maritime regions. The findings suggest that Lee Hsien Loong’s integrated approach can be applied to enhance security in other global chokepoints, offering an effective model for addressing maritime security challenges across contexts.

Optimizing Wing-In-Ground Effect UAVS for Enhanced Search and Rescue Operations: A Comprehensive Review

Abstract: Wing-In-Ground Effect (WIG) Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) represent a unique convergence of aerodynamic principles and unmanned systems technology, offering promising solutions for maritime operations. This paper explores the historical development, theoretical foundations, and potential applications of WIG UAVs. The phenomenon of ground effect, which enhances lift and reduces drag when flying close to water surfaces, has been observed since the early 20th century. Soviet engineer Rostislav Alexeyev's pioneering work on the Lun-class ekranoplan in the 1960s demonstrated the viability of WIG technology for military logistics. Advancements in materials science, propulsion systems, and computer-aided design have further refined WIG vehicle performance. The integration of autonomous capabilities has expanded the operational scope of WIG UAVs, enabling missions in challenging maritime environments. The aerodynamic investigation of WIG vehicles reveals the complex interplay between the vehicle's wings and the water surface, leading to enhanced lift-to-drag ratios and improved efficiency. Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations and wind tunnel experiments have provided valuable insights into the optimization of WIG UAV designs. The potential applications of WIG UAVs span maritime surveillance, coastal patrolling, search and rescue operations, and cargo transportation. Their ability to collaborate with other unmanned systems, such as aerial drones and surface vessels, enhances overall mission effectiveness. As the demand for sophisticated maritime capabilities grows, the development of WIG UAVs presents a promising frontier for innovation, offering unique solutions to address evolving challenges in maritime security and operational effectiveness

Analysis of the determinants of success of maritime security and resilience strategies moderated by risk management and resources multiplier in the Indonesia’s Archipelagic Sea Lane II

Indonesia has ratified United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982 (UNCLOS 1982) through Law No. 17 of 1985 concerning the ratification of the 1982 Law of the Sea Convention, thus binding Indonesia to the rights and obligations to implement the provisions of the 1982 convention, including the establishment of the three Northern-Southern Indonesia’s Archipelagic Sea Lane (ALKI). The existence of the three ALKI routes, including ALKI II, has led to various potential threats. These violations not only cause material losses but, if left unchecked and unresolved, can also affect maritime security stability, both nationally and regionally. The maritime security and resilience challenges in ALKI II have increased with the relocation of the capital, which has become the center of gravity, to East Kalimantan. The research in this article aims to identify and analyze the factors influencing the success of maritime security and resilience strategies in ALKI II. The factors used in this research include conceptual components, physical components, moral components, command and control center capabilities, operational effectiveness, command and control effectiveness, and the moderating variables of resource multiplier management and risk management to achieve maritime security and resilience. This study employed a mixed-method research approach. The factors are modeled using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) with WarpPLS 8.0 software. Qualitative data analysis used the Soft System Methodology (SSM). The results of the study indicate that the aforementioned factors significantly influence the success of achieving maritime security and resilience in ALKI II.

Maritime Security under the Lens: Evaluating its effectiveness in Deterring Piracy and Armed Robbery at Sea

Piracy is a significant threat in maritime zones, severely disrupting navigation and exerting a detrimental impact on global trade and commerce. This research critical examines the effectiveness of current maritime security measures, arrangements, and regulatory frameworks specifically designed to combat piracy and armed robbery at sea by exploring a range of strategies employed by both individual nations and international bodies, to counter the persistent maritime threat of armed robbery. Current research identifies key gaps and limitations within these existing measures of maritime securities, offering valuable insights into their practical efficacy and highlighting areas where improvements are necessary. The study evaluates the capacity of the existing frameworks by utilizing qualitative research methodology to theoretically address and prescribe effective mitigation strategies to deter piracy and armed robbery in today’s complex maritime environments, thereby contributing to the ongoing discourse on strengthening and enhancing global maritime security.

Strengthening Maritime Geopolitics Strategy to Counter Marine Resource Plundering in the North Natuna Sea

The North Natuna Sea is one of the most strategic seas in Indonesia. However, the plundering of marine resources by countries nearby poses a serious threat to Indonesia’s maritime security. This article discusses the maritime geopolitical strategy to counter the looting of marine resources. In the North Natuna Sea. This research uses a qualitative approach using a literature study. The findings show the importance of maritime boundary analysis as the first step to tackle the looting marine resources, particularly through illegal fishing. Maritime patrol and surveillance, maritime cooperation and diplomacy, and raising maritime awareness as a strategy maritime geopolitics in countering the looting marine resources in the North Natuna Sea. In addition to that, strengthening the maritime economy also needs improved to realize prosperity the community from engaging in activities looting of these marine resources.

Near-real-time atmospheric and oceanic science products of Himawari-8 and Himawari-9 geostationary satellites over the South China Sea

Abstract. The initial release of near-real-time (NRT) atmospheric and oceanic science products from Japanese Himawari-8 and Himawari-9 (H8/9) geostationary (GEO) satellites over the South China Sea (SCS) was unveiled in 2024. The primary objective behind crafting these NRT H8/9 satellite products is to facilitate weather and marine environment monitoring, enhance maritime security, and aid ocean navigation, among other purposes. As part of this investigation, a novel NRT data processing system was devised to generate a variety of regional H8/9 GEO satellite science products within a resolution of 10 min and a gridded resolution of 0.05° × 0.05° from 3 November 2022 to the present. This algorithm system was built upon the preceding Fengyun (FY) geostationary satellite algorithm test bed (FYGAT), which was the prototype of the FY-4 GEO meteorological satellite science product operational processing system. These regional H8/9 GEO satellite science products encompass a range of crucial data such as cloud mask, fraction, height, phase, optical, and microphysical properties; layered precipitable water; and sea surface temperature. We subjected these products to rigorous evaluations against high-quality analogous satellite products and reanalysis data spanning 1 year in 2023. The validations underscore a strong consistency between the H8/9 GEO satellite atmospheric and oceanic science products over the SCS and the referenced products. Nevertheless, slight discrepancies in these satellite science products were identified, primarily stemming from variations in sensor/dataset characteristics, retrieval algorithms, and geometric conditions. These outcomes demonstrate the suitability of the first edition of NRT atmospheric and oceanic science products of H8/9 satellites over the SCS in supporting the intended quantitative applications. This NRT GEO satellite data record is publicly accessible through the File Transfer Protocol (FTP) provided by the Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Zhuhai) in China. Free access to the dataset is possible via https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.25015853 (Liu et al., 2024).

Maritime security and the inter-agency challenge: The case of Ghana

ABSTRACT Maritime security is a major international concern with the Gulf of Guinea recognised as one of the global hotspots of blue crime, such as piracy, kidnap for ransom, trafficking of narcotics, human and arms, and illegal fishing. The complex and complicated challenge of maritime security, a wicked problem, calls for inter-agency coordination, synergy of efforts and scaling up of responses. Given the complexity of maritime security threats, no single organisation has the institutional muscle to single-handedly deal with it. Drawing on evidence from Ghana, where the arrival of maritime security as a concept triggered a shift from single to a multi-agency approach to dealing with maritime issues, the article examines the potential of and challenges associated with inter-agency coordination. In line with recent international developments, African nations like Ghana aim to apply the concept of inter-agency coordination to tackle maritime insecurity in its waters. The paper assesses how inter-agency coordination could be used in an African maritime security governance context, while examining power imbalance, strife for agency autonomy and other obstacles that have to be addressed to ensure that the promises associated with the concept are fulfilled.

India’s emerging undersea cable landscape: Varied Indo-Pacific partnerships to boost geopolitical ambitions?

India is set to be a cradle for undersea cable networks thanks to its geographical location, fast-growing economy, its potential to play a bigger role in global manufacturing, and its young, technologically skilled workforce. But amongst the tech giants such as the US and its allies, does India have the capabilities and the political intent to thwart China’s technological, and military disruption attempts in the Indo-Pacific? This article argues for enhanced maritime cooperation between like-minded states to improve interoperability between states and create a viable maritime security architecture that includes subsea cable security. It suggests that India can tamp down China’s growing influence in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR) by asserting Indian digital ascendance and by making full use of its multi-aligned “pointed” diplomacy with like-minded partners. To substantiate this approach, this article first defines the contours of India’s “pointed” diplomatic strategy and then discusses why India is crucial for the growing undersea cable network security in the IOR. Outlining India’s nascent attempts to create a relevant domestic regulatory framework on undersea cables, it explores India’s pointed diplomacy via its engagements with select partnerships, such as with the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (Quad) members and IOR littorals, among others.

Challenges and Security Risks in the Red Sea: Impact of Houthi Attacks on Maritime Traffic

This study examines the significant impact of Houthi insurgent activities on maritime traffic within the strategic Red Sea and Suez Canal routes, essential conduits for global trade. It explores the correlation between regional instability, exemplified by Houthi actions from 19 November 2023 to 5 February 2024, and changes in maritime traffic patterns and operational efficiency. This study seeks to answer a critical question in transport geography: how does regional instability, exemplified by Houthi insurgent activities, affect the maritime traffic patterns and operational efficiency of the Red Sea and Suez Canal? Using descriptive statistics, qualitative analysis, and geospatial methods, this research highlights recent trends in maritime traffic and incidents, revealing spatial and geopolitical challenges in this crucial trade route. The findings indicate a notable decline in maritime activity in the Gulf of Aden and Suez Canal due to security concerns from Houthi attacks, prompting a significant shift to alternative routes, particularly around the Cape of Good Hope. This shift underscores the broader implications of regional instability on global trade and the importance of maintaining an uninterrupted maritime flow. This study also emphasizes the economic ramifications, such as increased operational costs and freight rates due to longer transit times and enhanced security measures. This research concludes with a call for improved maritime security protocols and international cooperation to protect these strategic maritime pathways. It contributes to the discourse on transport geography by quantifying the direct impacts of regional conflicts on maritime logistics and proposing strategies for future resilience, highlighting the interconnected nature of global trade and security and the need for collective action against evolving geopolitical challenges.

Enhancing Maritime Security: Challenges and Strategies in Indonesia's Natuna Sea

The Natuna Sea, a strategic region within Indonesia's exclusive economic zone, faces multifaceted maritime security challenges that threaten national sovereignty, economic interests, and regional stability. This abstract explores the key issues and strategic responses to enhance maritime security in this vital area. Indonesia's maritime security challenges in the Natuna Sea are driven by illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing, territorial disputes, and transnational crimes such as smuggling and human trafficking. The encroachment of foreign fishing vessels, particularly from neighboring countries, exacerbates the IUU fishing problem, undermining local economies and depleting fish stocks. Additionally, overlapping territorial claims, particularly with China, complicate Indonesia's efforts to assert its sovereignty and maintain peace in the region. To address these challenges, Indonesia has developed a comprehensive maritime security strategy that includes diplomatic, legal, and operational measures. Diplomatic efforts focus on strengthening regional cooperation through ASEAN and other multilateral forums to foster dialogue and build consensus on maritime security issues. Legal measures involve the enforcement of national and international laws, including the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), to uphold Indonesia's territorial rights and combat IUU fishing. Operationally, Indonesia has enhanced its maritime patrols, surveillance capabilities, and naval presence in the Natuna Sea. The establishment of the Maritime Security Agency (Bakamla) and the deployment of advanced technology, such as unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and satellite monitoring, have improved the detection and interdiction of illegal activities. Despite these efforts, challenges persist due to resource constraints, coordination issues among agencies, and the complex geopolitical landscape. This abstract underscores the importance of a holistic and adaptive approach to maritime security, integrating diplomatic, legal, and operational strategies.

Unraveling the Maintenance of Southeast Asia Maritime Security; A Look into the ASEAN Maritime Outlook

The sea is an important engine of development for the growth of Southeast Asia. It has provided the states with new opportunities for growth and development. It is not surprising that many initiatives have been undertaken to leverage the vast sea in the region. Under Indonesia’s chairmanship, ASEAN’s focus towards the maritime domain was accentuated by the release of the ASEAN Maritime Outlook (AMO). This new addition to ASEAN’s maritime security instruments serves as a reference for upcoming endeavors on the field and to avoid duplication. Through using the qualitative research methods, the author seeks to explore the ways ASEAN has sought to maintain its multifaceted maritime security. Against that backdrop, apart from elaborating what the AMO has to offer, the author also unravels the strides ASEAN has taken in maintaining some dimensions to its maritime security. The aforementioned dimensions, referring to Christian Bueger, consisted of national security, human security, marine environment, and economic development. It is found how ASEAN’s effort to maintain maritime security is apparent in the initiatives done within its 3 pillars. Moreover, ASEAN also expands its effort by cooperating with actors outside of Southeast Asia in many aspects given the interconnectedness inherent to the sea. Based on the conclusion, it is recommended that ASEAN continues to prioritize and enhance its multifaceted approach to maritime security, building on the foundations laid by the ASEAN Maritime Outlook (AMO). ASEAN should intensify efforts to strengthen national security, human security, marine environment protection, and economic development through its three pillars: Political-Security Community, Economic Community, and Socio-Cultural Community. To further bolster these initiatives, ASEAN should deepen its cooperation with external partners, leveraging the interconnected nature of the maritime domain.

Performance Evaluation of Hybrid Propulsion System on Fast Patrol Boat

This paper presents a performance evaluation of a hybrid propulsion system applied to a fast patrol boat. The study aims to analyze the efficiency, fuel consumption, and overall operational effectiveness of the hybrid system compared to conventional propulsion methods. A combination of electric motors and diesel engines is utilized in the hybrid setup, allowing for optimized energy use in varying operational conditions. The performance of the system was evaluated through simulation and sea trials, focusing on key metrics such as speed, endurance, maneuverability, and emission reduction. Results indicate that the hybrid system offers significant advantages in terms of fuel savings and reduced environmental impact, particularly during low-speed or patrol operations. This research provides valuable insights into the practical benefits and challenges of implementing hybrid propulsion systems in maritime security operations.

Understanding ASEAN's Perception and Response to Japan's "Indo-Pacific Strategy"

The ASEAN region is located along Japan's critical maritime lifeline and has maintained close cooperation with Japan in various fields for an extended period, making it a pivotal point for Japan's "Indo-Pacific Strategy". To successfully advance this strategy, Japan has strengthened cooperation with ASEAN and its member states in the economic and maritime security sectors through dual-track diplomacy, seeking ASEAN's recognition and support for the strategy. ASEAN views Japan's policies as beneficial to its development and capable of enhancing its strategic autonomy to some extent. However, the regional order constructed by Japan's "Indo-Pacific Strategy" undermines ASEAN's centrality in the regional security architecture and negatively impacts its amicable relations with China. To preserve its centrality, ASEAN introduced the "ASEAN Outlook on the Indo-Pacific", aiming to articulate its vision and stance clearly to maintain its central role in regional affairs. Furthermore, ASEAN employs a hedging strategy amid great power competition to safeguard its interests and actively collaborates with external countries to expand its strategic autonomy.

The protection of submarine cables in Southeast Asia: The security gap and challenges and opportunities for regional cooperation

This article argues that Southeast Asian states’ efforts to promote resilience on submarine cables should move beyond facilitating cable deployment and repair to encompass cooperation on the protection of submarine cables from intentional damage given recent incidents highlighting the vulnerability of undersea infrastructure. While protection of submarine cables from damage (routine or non-routine) requires a broad range of legal and policy measures taken by states, industry and other relevant stakeholders, this article focuses on intentional damage to submarine cables and the measures highlighted in the 2023 General Assembly Resolution on Oceans and Law of the Sea, namely, cooperative measures by states aimed at the detection, prevention and suppression of threats to submarine cables consisting of (1) monitoring; (2) prevention and response; (3) the enhanced sharing of information; and (4) the adoption of national laws on the prosecution of offenders. The analysis views intentional damage to submarine cables through the lens of maritime security and examines challenges and opportunities for regional cooperation between Southeast Asian states on these four measures. It also explores the role that the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), the primary intergovernmental organization in the region, can play in facilitating cooperation on the protection of submarine cables, and makes recommendations on areas of possible cooperation on the protection of submarine cables.

Editorial: Artificial Intelligence and Cybersecurity in Pervasive Computing

Pervasive computing, or ubiquitous computing, is rapidly increasing in capacity and capabilities. With the Internet of Things (IoT) becoming an integral part of daily life and the growing availability of edge computing resources, automation guided by data is advancing applications in healthcare, manufacturing, automotive, and other areas. It's natural that pervasive computing will intersect with artificial intelligence (AI) and cybersecurity. AI can improve detection, prediction, and anticipative responses to human needs, while cybersecurity addresses topics like misuse prevention, ethics, policies, and governance. This issue features seven articles on these intersections, including four AI articles exploring natural language processing and computer vision, and three cybersecurity articles covering cryptography, medical devices, and maritime security.

Navigating uncharted waters: Legal challenges and the future of unmanned underwater vehicles in maritime military cyber operations

The evolving landscape of maritime security is increasingly shaped by the integration of cyber technologies into naval operations, posing complex legal challenges under international maritime law. This paper examines the 2016 Bowditch incident, in which a U.S. Navy Unmanned Underwater Vehicle was detained by the Chinese navy, as a case study for comprehending the legal implications of maritime military cyber operations. The research delves into the ambiguous legal standing of unmanned underwater vehicles and their activities, particularly within the framework of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. Through a detailed analysis of the incident, this study identifies significant gaps in existing legal frameworks and advocates for the urgent need to augment international law to adequately address the emergence of cyber technologies in maritime military operations. The findings underscore the crucial role of international consensus in defining the legal status of unmanned maritime systems and the norms governing maritime military cyber operations, essential for upholding global maritime security and stability.

An Improved Physics-Based Dual-Band Model for Satellite-Derived Bathymetry Using SuperDove Imagery

Shallow water bathymetry is critical for environmental monitoring and maritime security. Current widely used statistical models based on passive optical satellite remote sensing often rely on prior bathymetric data, limiting their application to regions lacking such information. In contrast, the physics-based dual-band log-linear analytical model (P-DLA) can estimate shallow water bathymetry without in situ measurements, offering significant potential. However, the quasi-analytical algorithm (QAA) used in the P-DLA is sensitive to non-ideal pixels, resulting in unstable bathymetry estimation. To address this issue and evaluate the potential of SuperDove imagery for bathymetry estimation in regions without prior bathymetric data, this study proposes an improved physics-based dual-band model (IPDB). The IPDB replaces the QAA with a spectral optimization algorithm that integrates deep and shallow water sample pixels to estimate diffuse attenuation coefficients for the blue and green bands. This allows for more accurate estimation of shallow water bathymetry. The IPDB was tested on SuperDove images of Dongdao Island, Yongxing Island, and Yongle Atoll. The results showed that SuperDove images are capable of estimating shallow water bathymetry in regions without prior bathymetric data. The IPDB achieved Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) values below 1.7 m and R2 values above 0.89 in all three study areas, indicating strong performance in bathymetric estimation. Notably, the IPDB outperformed the standard P-DLA model in accuracy. Furthermore, this study outlines four sampling principles that, when followed, ensure that variations in the spatial distribution of sampling pixels do not significantly impact model performance. This study also showed that the blue–green band combination is optimal for the analytical expression of the physics-based dual-band model.

Unmanned surface vehicles for naval warfare and maritime security

There is a growing need to implement maritime defensive systems, covering both medium-range and close-in defenses. This is in response to the escalating threat posed by unmanned surface vehicles (USVs) in a rapidly changing environment. As unmanned technologies become more widespread and advanced, the proactive deployment of these defensive measures is becoming imperative. This strategic approach aims to reduce risks, protect vital assets, and bolster the Navy’s flexibility in adapting to the evolving dynamics of contemporary naval warfare. This initiative aligns with broader goals of upholding maritime security and contributing to regional stability amid rapidly shifting conditions in warfare. This perspective covers the relevant aspects of USV development, and the countermeasures being considered.

Determination of Cross-Border Post Points Based on Geospatial Intelligence for Territorial Defense of the Unitary State of the Republic of Indonesia: Literature Review

The location of cross-border posts is crucial for Indonesia's land and maritime security and combating illegal activity. Geographical intelligence technology like sensors and machine learning can help find crucial sites. GEOINT and international cooperation enable monitoring, threat detection, and trade regulation. This study uses a literature review to examine how GEOINT helps Indonesia defend its territory. This research collects, analyzes, and synthesizes important scientific studies using a literature review. Our literature search used relevant terms in scientific databases. The selected literature covers GIS, GEOINT, Satellites, Drones, and cross-border posts. Analysis identified major conclusions and research gaps. Geospatial intelligence technology (GEOINT), which uses drones and satellites to monitor and provide high-resolution data, is effective at detecting and responding to threats in Indonesia's extensive border areas. Additionally, this technology helps find the right cross-border post. Geographic information systems (GIS) must assist centralized data management and defense agency collaboration to strengthen border security. GEOINT supports strategic cross-border post placement decisions to secure Indonesia's borders. For regional defense, national security, and stability in the face of complex global problems, the latest and most effective technologies must be developed and used.