Maritime Security Cooperation Research Articles

The fallacy of uti possidetis juris: transboundary fishing in disputed maritime boundaries as a threat to Africa’s peace and security

ABSTRACT Africa’s oceans and seas and their resources are crucial for the economic and food security of Coastal States and Small Island Developing States (SIDS). However, sustaining these contributions is undermined by depleting resources and other security threats at sea. Given the transboundary nature of oceans resources and the threats that pervade them, maritime boundary disputes further complicate the situation, by making maritime security cooperation difficult for African countries, especially against illegal fishing. Our transdisciplinary paper draws evidence from legal, security, and development literature, policy documents, and expert insights to highlight the impact of maritime boundary disputes on maritime cooperation and security. Our argument is threefold: first, the principle of uti possidetis juris has resulted in artificial boundaries, propelling maritime boundary tensions and, arguably, in some cases, inflaming them. Second, delimitation exercises, often the outcome of applying the uti possidetis juris principle, limit opportunities for cooperation in managing shared resources and security. Third, irrespective of boundary disputes, the ambulatory nature of fish forces fishers to encroach into neighbouring waters. This paper concludes that addressing these challenges requires a comprehensive approach to oceans governance, acknowledging the transboundary nature of threats and promoting joint management arrangements as a mechanism for settling boundary disputes.

The Urgency of Handling Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing in the Indonesian Border Region Perspective: Marine Security in the Makassar Strait

ASEAN Outlook on Indo-Pacific (AOIP) plays a role in maintaining peace, security, stability and prosperity in the Asia Pacific and Indian Ocean (Indo-Pacific) region. However, due to common and competing interests, there are still conflicts in the region's implementation. Maritime security cooperation, which includes addressing illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing, is one of the most important issues in the ASEAN region. The research intends to examine law enforcement against IUU violations in the ASEAN region, as well as the consequences of IUU violations by ASEAN countries on waters in the Makassar Strait. This is a qualitative study that employs a normative-empirical approach. The first problem is analyzed using the normative aspect, which is based on international and national law on ASEAN agreements on IUU, law enforcement, and other issues. While the empirical aspect is used to analyze the second problem through in-depth interviews about Makassar Strait water supervision and law enforcement. Based on the research findings, IUU law enforcement in the ASEAN Region must be carried out firmly to parties that threaten security and stability in the ASEAN Region, as outlined in each agreement participant's national law. Meanwhile, the legal consequences of IUU violations in the ASEAN Region have an impact on the security and stability of the waters of the Makassar Strait.

Preventing Catastrophic Cyber–Physical Attacks on the Global Maritime Transportation System: A Case Study of Hybrid Maritime Security in the Straits of Malacca and Singapore

This paper examines hybrid threats to maritime transportation systems and their governance responses; focusing on the congested Straits of Malacca and Singapore (SOMS) as an illustrative case study. The methodology combines secondary sources with primary data from 42 expert interviews, a 28 respondent survey, and two maritime security roundtables. Key findings were that ships’ critical systems are increasingly interconnected, yet aging IT infrastructure and minimal cybersecurity awareness among crews heighten risks. Meanwhile, regional terrorist groups have previously targeted shipping and shown considerable skill in exploiting online tools, aligning with broader calls for jihadist violence. Furthermore, opportunistic piracy persists in the SOMS with the potential to disrupt shipping. Experts confirmed that maritime cybersecurity lags behind other critical infrastructure sectors and needs updated governance. Initial International Maritime Organization (IMO) guidelines lack specificity but revisions and updated IMO guidance are in process, while Port state implementation of maritime cybersecurity standards varies. Crucially, information sharing remains inadequate, even as recorded attacks increase. Findings underscore that although major hybrid incidents have not occurred, simulations and threat actors’ capabilities demonstrate potential for catastrophic collisions or cascading disruption in congested waterways. Mitigating factors like redundancy and crew training are deficient currently. Some alignment between SOMS states on maritime security cooperation exists, but not on cyber threats specifically. Key recommendations include an anonymous cyber attack reporting system, reinforced training and shipboard systems, and consolidated regional frameworks. Until these priorities are addressed, the analysis concludes that hybrid vulnerabilities in this vital global chokepoint remain a serious concern.

India’s Defence Cooperation with the GCC: Role for the Indian Navy

The success of India’s ‘Look West’ Policy for promoting ties with the Middle East countries has helped to build upon historical trade and cultural ties and paved the way to progress defence and security cooperation. This could be led by the Indian Navy which has emerged as the regional net security provider and which also played an instrumental role in promoting India’s relations with the Southeast Asian countries under India’s ‘Look East’ Policy of the 1990s. Close maritime security cooperation between the Arab Gulf navies and the Indian Navy could be mutually beneficial and help to improve overall regional maritime security. This article looks at how this could be achieved, overcoming potential challenges along the way.

Sino-U.S. Strategic Competition in the Asia-Pacific: Omnidirectional Hedging of Traditional Middle Powers

The strategic landscape of the Asia-Pacific is now shaped by the competition between China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) and the United States’ Free and Open Indo-Pacific strategy. The Sino-U.S. strategic competition has greatly impacted the strategic outlook and foreign policies of middle powers in the region. This paper argues that the Asia-Pacific middle powers are functioning along the lines of omnidirectional hedging which is relatively a new concept in the IR discourse. Omnidirectional hedging entails maximisation of strategic space and avoiding entrapment in the great power rivalry through diplomatic, economic and security diversification. Through qualitative analysis, this research observes that the traditional middle powers ─ Japan, India, and Australia ─ are now largely focusing on multilateralism, minilateral alliances, free trade agreements, infrastructure investments, maritime security cooperation and new defence agreements. Such a foreign policy behaviour is paving way for a closely knitted middle-power network in the region to prevent great powers from engaging in direct confrontation which would threaten regional peace and stability.

Research on Maritime Security Cooperation Between China-ASEAN Countries under the Background of the Maritime Community with a Shared Future Initiative

Since China put forward the "Maritime community with a shared future" initiative, it gradually strengths national strategic planning and layout in the field of maritime security. The large area of maritime contiguity shared by China and the ASEAN countries calls for the close partnership in each others maritime security cooperation. This thesis mainly aims to study how maritime security cooperation between China and ASEAN countries can be carried out under the "Maritime community with a shared future" initiative, what obstacles exist, and how to optimize cooperation plans in the future. On the basis of existing case studies of maritime security cooperation between China and ASEAN countries, the research firstly summarized the trends of maritime security cooperation between the two sides, and then confirmed that the establishment of "Maritime community with a shared future" initiative has led maritime security cooperation between China and ASEAN into a new age, especially in the in-depth cooperation in the field of traditional maritime security and the expansion of cooperation in the field of non-traditional maritime security. The results are of great practical significance: they are conducive to deepening the maritime security interaction between China and ASEAN countries, as well as stabilizing the security environment in Southeast Asian seas.

Dampak Kerja Sama Jepang-Filipina Terhadap Keamanan Maritim Jepang

Japan and the Philippines are countries rich in history, culture, and natural wealth closely tied to the sea. Japan has engaged in maritime diplomacy with the Philippines in the realm of security. Maritime security cooperation between the two nations forms the foundation for collaboration in the management of marine resources, cultural exchanges, economics, and maritime security. The objective of this research is to examine the impacts that can result from Japan-Philippines cooperation on Japan's maritime security. This research employs a mixed-methodology to elucidate the scope and impacts stemming from Japan-Philippines cooperation on Japan's maritime security. The research findings demonstrate that the impact of Japan-Philippines cooperation on maritime security provides critical access and plays a vital role in strengthening regional security in the area. Success in achieving assured maritime security conditions has positive effects on Japan in various sectors, especially in the trade sector. This leads to an increase in trust and facilitates smooth trade activities in the maritime region due to guaranteed maritime security. This approach reflects Japan's commitment to being more proactive in upholding global maritime security and collaborating with its regional partners to achieve shared prosperity and peace in the region and the world.

The Impact Of Cyber Espionage Issue On Maritime Security Cooperation Between Indonesian National Police And Australian Federal Police

In international law, espionage committed by one country against another in the form of wiretapping is a form of violation of international law and can disrupt relations between the two countries concerned. In this case, Australia had wiretapped Indonesian executive officials such as the President and his deputy in 2013. The action caused the intensity of the relationship between Indonesia and Australia to heat up. In this case, the geographical proximity between Indonesia and Australia causes the two countries to need each other, especially in dealing with cross-border crimes involving the two countries. This research intends to find out how the influence of Australia's wiretapping actions in Indonesia to the bilateral cooperation in handling transnational crimes. This research will use Butler's conflict management theory to examine the resolution of the conflict and how the resolution affects the cooperation between the two countries. From this research, it is known that the actions taken by Australia made the relationship between Indonesia and Australia tense. This was followed by the termination of bilateral cooperation projects between Indonesia and Australia. One of the areas of discontinued cooperation is cooperation in combating transnational crimes between the Indonesian National Police (Polri) and the AFP. This situation will create a loophole for perpetrators of cross-border crimes in carrying out their actions between the two countries, one of the most vulnerable transnational crimes is related to people smuggling. This affects the maritime security sector between the two which must be anticipated immediately.

U.S.-Vietnam maritime security cooperation in the South China Sea: From the Obama administration to the current Biden administration

U.S.-Vietnam maritime security cooperation in the South China Sea: From the Obama administration to the current Biden administration

Islam and Maritime Security Cooperation Zone for Combating Terrorism: An Overview of Islamic Legal Thought

This article aims to examine the phenomenon of cooperation among Southeast Asian countries in dealing with the case of maritime security and counter-terrorism. The study uses the legal approach covering both international law and Islamic law perspectives. The finding of this article reveals that the implementation of the ASEAN Convention on Counter-Terrorism (ACCT) plays a crucial role in combating terrorism in the context of maritime security. Furthermore, relevant ASEAN member state authorities need follow-up support to enhance cooperation. The supports are important to counter, prevent, and suppress terrorism, terrorist organizations, associations, and networks' plans of the act. Yet, the implementation of ASEAN cooperation has faced the challenging reality of the paradox of maritime sovereignty among states in the region. The problem is likely encouraged by the factor of the internal political dynamics within each state involving the instrumentalization of the issue of national security. Instead of remaining as the problem on the surface, the conceptual initiation of the cooperation forged by religious doctrine such as ta'awun may be considered.

Beyond Binaries: Southeast Asia�s Maritime Security Cooperation with China and India

Beyond Binaries: Southeast Asia�s Maritime Security Cooperation with China and India

New Developments in China’s Maritime Traffic Safety Legislation: Theoretical Background, Institutional Changes, and Potential Implications

Recent legal theories and state practice have tended to expand the conceptualization of maritime security beyond the traditional security field to encompass nontraditional security issues such as economic growth, environmental protection, and the optimal use of ocean resources. In this context, the conceptualization of maritime security in China has also undergone profound changes that have significantly influenced China’s revision of maritime traffic safety legislation. The objectives of this article are to examine the specific institutional changes in China’s new regulatory framework for maritime traffic safety, and to explore their potential implications. This article uses normative analysis to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the institutional developments in China’s new maritime traffic safety legislation, discusses how the evolution of the concept of maritime security has theoretically affected these institutional developments, and explores the potential implications of the new legislation for China’s navigational safety governance, maritime law enforcement, and cross-border maritime security cooperation.

Exploring the Reasons for France-India Maritime Security Cooperation in the Indo-Pacific Region under Macron's Government

France and India concluded a bilateral strategic partnership in 1998, and the two countries have long maintained maritime military cooperation. Since Macron came to power, France's "Indo-Pacific Strategy" has been used as a basis to enhance the breadth and depth of maritime security cooperation with India in the Indo-Pacific region, which has the strategic consideration of safeguarding sovereign interests and coping with the complex international situation in the Indo-Pacific region, as well as the purpose of promoting economic exchanges and boosting economic benefits through maritime security cooperation. However, the unpredictable domestic and international situations have brought certain obstacles to the deep development of maritime security cooperation between the two countries, and the prospect of cooperation remains to be seen.

The Importance of the US-Malaysia Maritime Security Cooperation (2010-2021)

Maritime security cooperation is a strategic approach engaged by the Malaysian government that involves a bilateral agreement with the United States (US), including the various agencies and organizations. The involvement with maritime security is due to the emergence of serious Non-Traditional Security (NTS) threats over the Malaysian waterways (Straits of Malacca, the South China Sea and the Sulu Sea in Eastern Sabah). The bilateral security cooperation aims to overcome the Malaysian government’s gaps and limitations to govern its waterways. A qualitative method was used in this research to explain the implication of the US-Malaysia maritime security cooperation towards Malaysia’s national security, specifically in the maritime domain, from 2010 until 2021. This research has two objectives, namely; 1) to investigate maritime security issues and challenges and 2) to identify the importance of the US Malaysia maritime security cooperation. The national security concept was used in this research to support the maritime security collaboration between the US and Malaysia. This study found that Malaysia faces challenges and constraints from obsolescence, lack of maritime assets, and weaknesses in enforcing maritime laws, mainly dealing with increasing traditional and non-traditional security threats. Second, Malaysia can reduce the gap in the governance of maritime routes through bilateral security cooperation with the US. This study concluded that Malaysia can maintain the peace and security of its maritime routes and improve and strengthen bilateral cooperation with the US through various stages, especially economic recovery in the post-pandemic era of COVID-19. Bilateral maritime security cooperation is a crucial factor that will shape future global maritime governance to ensure national security stability.

From ‘net security provider’ to ‘preferred security partnerships’: the rhetoric, reality and result of India’s maritime security cooperation

ABSTRACT India’s governments since 2011 have rhetorically described a new and ambitious role for the navy as a ‘net security provider’ primarily to island and littoral states of the Indian Ocean. This was primarily based on the navy’s tasks as the ‘first responder’ for maritime disasters and enhanced Maritime Domain Awareness. Yet, the navy preferred instead to be seen in a less expansive role as a ‘provider of net maritime security.’ In late 2020, the navy further adapted this role to become a ‘preferred security partner’ for the littoral and island states of the Indian Ocean. This was essentially the result of budget constraints and capacity shortfalls. But, it also wisely signalled India’s more inclusive and minilateral/multilateral approach towards maritime security cooperation in the aftermath of its border clash with China in June 2020 and China's growing presence, influence and impact in the Indian Ocean region.

The US-Malaysia Maritime Security Cooperation and Implication Towards Malaysia’s National Security

Maritime security cooperation is a strategic approach engaged by the Malaysian government that involves a bilateral agreement with the United States (US), including the various agencies and organizations. The involvement with maritime security is due to the emergence of serious Non-Traditional Security (NTS) threats over the Malaysian waterways (Straits of Malacca, the South China Sea and the Sulu Sea in Eastern Sabah). The bilateral security cooperation aims to overcome the Malaysian government’s gaps and limitations to govern its waterways. A qualitative method was used in this research to explain the implication of the US-Malaysia maritime security cooperation towards Malaysia’s national security, specifically in the maritime domain, from 2010 until 2021. This research has three objectives, namely; 1) to investigate maritime security issues and challenges; 2) to identify the importance of the US Malaysia maritime security cooperation; 3) to analyze the implications of security cooperation towards Malaysia’s national security. The national security concept was used in this research to support the maritime security collaboration between the US and Malaysia. This study found that Malaysia faces challenges and constraints from obsolescence, lack of maritime assets, and weaknesses in enforcing maritime laws, mainly dealing with increasing traditional and non-traditional security threats. Second, Malaysia can reduce the gap in the governance of maritime routes through bilateral security cooperation with the US. Third, Malaysia can maintain the peace and security of its maritime routes and improve and strengthen bilateral cooperation with the US through various stages, especially economic recovery in the post-pandemic era of COVID-19.

Indonesia Perspective on Counter-Piracy in the Continuity of the Indian Ocean Maritime Security Cooperation

Indonesia Perspective on Counter-Piracy in the Continuity of the Indian Ocean Maritime Security Cooperation

India’s maritime security legal framework and its influence on international maritime security cooperation

ABSTRACT The Law of the Sea Convention (LOSC) is a veritable constitution of the oceans that was negotiated with the overarching objective of protecting the “common heritage of mankind”. While the primary goal of developing countries was to protect their economic interests by seeking maritime areas with exclusive jurisdiction, the LOSC has a significant role in furthering maritime security cooperation among countries. The universally accepted trait of international cooperation in maritime security efforts requires a commonality of perception of threats and the legally acceptable ways in which they may be mitigated. In order to develop meaningful cooperative endeavours in maritime security, it is essential for India to develop a domestic legislative framework that supports its maritime security demands and promotes its standing as an upholder of the international order.

Indo-French Cooperation and Engagement in Holistic Maritime Security: Possibilities and Implications in the Indian Ocean Region

The diffusion of the Indo-Pacific concept in India’s strategic vocabulary has accompanied the emergence of a broader strategic reference frame, in which the impacts of climate change on coastal areas and maritime-related environmental issues figure among the lowest common denominators of cooperation at the regional scale. In the Indian Ocean Region (IOR), unregulated fishing, natural disasters relief or marine pollution indeed became major security concerns for littoral States as well as it gave a new role for the armies in mitigating increasing environmental risks. In fact, we are seeing an expansion in India-France maritime security cooperation, with particular focus on the Indian Ocean. With its expanding economic, marine military, and strategic goals in the Indo-Pacific region, India is eager to develop connections with countries throughout the area. France is emphasising its identity as an Indo-Pacific nation and showing interest in bolstering its partnership with India. The Indian Ocean has emerged as a hot topic in recent Indo-French bilateral talks, as both nations seek to broaden their long-standing strategic partnership to the maritime domain. In February 2022, they inked a roadmap to boost their bilateral exchanges on the blue economy and forge a common vision of ocean governance on the basis of the rule of law, and cooperation on sustainable and resilient coastal and waterways infrastructure (MEA, Feb 2022).[i] In this regard, both agreed to explore the potential for collaboration in marine science research for a better understanding of the oceans, including the Indian Ocean. One such partnership is the ‘The Indo-Pacific Oceans Initiative’ (IPOI), wherein France and India have taken the responsibility of being the ‘lead’ for the Marine Resources Pillar, which is one of seven identified pillars (MEA, Mar 2022).[ii] In such a context, this paper aims to explore India’s cooperation opportunities in the field of environmental security in the IOR in the context of Indo-French relations. As a preferred net security provider in the region, India has made of France one of the cornerstones of its SAGAR policy and a first-choice partner on maritime issues, as testified recently by the India-France Roadmap on Blue Economy and Ocean Governance. Based on several years of research on Indo-French relations and environmental security in the Indo-Pacific, the paper will first compare the securitization process of maritime-related environmental issues within the regional security policies of both countries and the adaptation of their navies to emerging environmental risks in the Indian Ocean. Then, it will analyse to what extent this process contributes to reshape military-to-military cooperation between the two navies/coast guard in emerging areas such as disaster relief operations, protection of maritime ecosystems or cyclone early warning. Then, it will consider the multilateral implications of this cooperation and its potential contribution to the security architecture of the Indian Ocean. [i] Ministry of External Affairs of India (February 2022). India-France Roadmap on the Blue Economy and Ocean Governance. [ii] Ministry of External Affairs of India (March 2022). Indo-French Call for an ‘Indo-Pacific Parks Partnership. Joint Declaration, Paris.

India–Australia: Defining New Horizons of Engagement

The landmark virtual summit between Prime Ministers Narendra Modi and Scott Morrison in June 2020 led to ties being upgraded to a Comprehensive Strategic Partnership. Australia’s High Commissioner to India alluded to the four D’s—Democracy, Defence, Diaspora, Dosti (friendship), with increased focus on Defence. In the India–Australia partnership, the emphasis is on maritime security cooperation, Quad 2.0, the Malabar exercises as well as cyber security and intelligence cooperation. The bilateral Mutual Logistics Support Agreement, and growing influence of China in the Indian and Pacific Oceans provide necessary impetus for the relationship to grow. The article outlines reasons for the growing bilateral relationship and the possible future trajectory.