System Of Marine Protected Areas Research Articles

Monitoring spatial and temporal soundscape features within ecologically significant U.S. National Marine Sanctuaries.

The U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Office of National Marine Sanctuaries manages a system of marine protected areas encompassing more than 2,000,000 km2 . U.S. National Marine Sanctuaries (NMS) have been designated to provide protection for their conservation, recreational, ecological, historical, scientific, cultural, archaeological, educational, or aesthetic qualities. Due to the large variability of attributes among NMS, designing coordinated system-wide monitoring to support diverse resource protection goals can be challenging. Underwater sound monitoring is seeing increasing application to marine protected area management because it is able to support this wide variety of information needs. Passive acoustics are providing invaluable autonomous information regarding habitat associations, identifying species spatial and temporal use, and highlighting patterns in conditions that are otherwise difficult to survey. Using standardized equipment and analysis methods this study collected ambient underwater sound data and derived measurements to investigate temporal changes in sound pressure levels and power spectral density, identify presence of select species of importance and support within and among site comparison of ambient underwater sound among eight sites within four U.S. NMS. Broadband sound pressure levels of ambient sound (10-24,000 Hz) varied as much as 24 dB re 1 µPa (max difference 100-124 dB re 1 µPa) among the recording sites, sanctuaries, and seasons. Biotic signals, such as snapping shrimp snaps and vocalizations of fishes, exhibited distinct diel and seasonal patterns and showed variation among sites. Presence of anthropogenic signals, such as vessel passage, also varied substantially among sites, ranging from on average 1.6-21.8 h/d. The study identified measurements that effectively summarized baseline soundscape attributes and prioritized future opportunities for integrating non-acoustic and acoustic variables in order to inform area-specific management questions within four ecologically varying U.S. National Marine Sanctuaries.

Representation does not necessarily reduce threats to biodiversity: Australia's Commonwealth marine protected area system, 2012–2018

In 2012, Australia proclaimed a national marine protected area (MPA) system - the National Representative System of MPAs (NRSMPA). Following a change in federal government, the system underwent two major revisions: an independent review released in 2015, and a final plan designed by the Director of National Parks implemented in 2018. We used all three iterations of the NRSMPA, from 2012 to 2018, to compare: 1. the MPA zoning composition, using IUCN protected area categories; 2. the achievement of goals for representing biophysical features; and 3. the potential to mitigate threats to biodiversity from commercial fishing and offshore petroleum extraction. We found that protection levels in the NRSMPA were downgraded in 2018, compared to 2012 and 2015 iterations. Although each iteration met its qualitative goals, the lack of quantitative goals meant that representation of biophysical features was highly uneven and dominated by MPAs offering little protection against the impacts of extractive uses. Moreover, existing areas with value for pelagic longlining, demersal trawling, and offshore petroleum extraction were largely avoided by MPAs, irrespective of their biophysical features. MPAs, especially those with high protection, resulted in little forgone fisheries catch and revenue, likely providing few safeguards for species threatened by fishing. Changes in the NRSMPA over time have left more areas open to fishing, particularly pelagic fishing and notably in the Coral Sea. By focusing on meeting poorly defined representation goals instead of threat reduction, changes to the NRSMPA over time have increased the exposure of Australia's marine biodiversity to known threats.

Assessing the current state of ecological connectivity in a large marine protected area system.

The establishment of marine protected areas (MPAs) is a critical step in ensuring the continued persistence of marine biodiversity. Although the area protected in MPAs is growing, the movement of individuals (or larvae) among MPAs, termed connectivity, has only recently been included as an objective of many MPAs. As such, assessing connectivity is often neglected or oversimplified in the planning process. For promoting population persistence, it is important to ensure that protected areas in a system are functionally connected through dispersal or adult movement. We devised a multi‐species model of larval dispersal for the Australian marine environment to evaluate how much local scale connectivity is protected in MPAs and determine whether the extensive system of MPAs truly functions as a network. We focused on non‐migratory species with simplified larval behaviors (i.e., passive larval dispersal) (e.g., no explicit vertical migration) as an illustration. Of all the MPAs analyzed (approximately 2.7 million km2), outside the Great Barrier Reef and Ningaloo Reef, <50% of MPAs (46‐80% of total MPA area depending on the species considered) were functionally connected. Our results suggest that Australia's MPA system cannot be referred to as a single network, but rather a collection of numerous smaller networks delineated by natural breaks in the connectivity of reef habitat. Depending on the dispersal capacity of the taxa of interest, there may be between 25 and 47 individual ecological networks distributed across the Australian marine environment. The need to first assess the underlying natural connectivity of a study system prior to implementing new MPAs represents a key research priority for strategically enlarging MPA networks. Our findings highlight the benefits of integrating multi‐species connectivity into conservation planning to identify opportunities to better incorporate connectivity into the design of MPA systems and thus to increase their capacity to support long‐term, sustainable biodiversity outcomes.

China's marine protected area system: Evolution, challenges, and new prospects

China has been working for nearly four decades to establish marine protected areas (MPAs). After the 2018 institutional reform, all the protected areas were integrated into a unified management by the Ministry of Natural Resources. Therefore, it is urgent to summarize management experiences and put forward new management countermeasures. In this study, we analyzed the development process of China's MPAs and show that, after a long-term increase, both number and area of newly built MPAs shrank after 2008. No-take marine nature reserves used to largely contribute to the MPA network. However, because of the shortage of land for economic development, willingness to build nature reserves in coastal areas, as opposed to reclamation and other marine exploitations, was relatively low nationwide in the last decade. Thus, marine special protected areas, which were smaller and with multiple-use strategies, became more important. Top-down decision-making process, decentralization, and unbalanced spatial distribution are the main challenges hampering an effective MPA network. In China, a unified jurisdiction of MPAs was implemented after institutional reform, which made a new top-level design possible. Appropriate categorization consisting of fully protected and multiple-use MPAs, a balanced system integrating top-down and bottom-up approaches, and a flexible and adaptive MPA network are suggested to achieve sustainable development of China's MPAs.

Strengthening the synergies among global biodiversity targets to reconcile conservation and socio‐economic demands

Abstract Most of the world's nations adopted the 20 Aichi global biodiversity targets to be met by 2020, including the protection of at least 10% of their coastal and marine areas (Target 11) and the avoidance of extinction of threatened species (Target 12). However, reconciling these biodiversity targets with socio‐economic demands remains a great dilemma for implementing conservation policies. In this paper, Aichi Targets 11 and 12 were simultaneously addressed using Brazil's exclusive economic zone as an example. Priority areas for expanding the current system of marine protected areas within the country's eight marine ecoregions were identified with data on threatened vertebrates under different scenarios. Additionally, the potential effects of major socio‐economic activities (small‑ and large‐scale fishing, seabed mining, and oil and gas exploration) on the representation of conservation features in proposed marine protected areas were explored. Areas selected for expanding marine protected areas solely based on biodiversity data were different (spatial overlap from 62% to 93%) from areas prioritized when socio‐economic features were incorporated into the analysis. The addition of socio‐economic data in the prioritization process substantially decreased opportunity costs and potential conservation conflicts, at the cost of reducing significantly (up to 31%) the coverage of conservation features. Large‑ and small‐scale fisheries act in most of the exclusive economic zone and are the major constraints for protecting high‐priority areas. Nevertheless, there is some spatial mismatch between areas of special relevance for conservation and socio‐economic activities, suggesting an opportunity for reconciling the achievement of biodiversity targets and development goals within the intricate Brazilian seascape by 2020 and beyond.

National-scale marine bioregions for the Southwest Pacific

Existing marine bioregions covering the Pacific Ocean are conceptualised at spatial scales that are too broad for national marine spatial planning. Here, we developed the first combined oceanic and coastal marine bioregionalisation at national scales, delineating 262 deep-water and 103 reef-associated bioregions across the southwest Pacific. The deep-water bioregions were informed by thirty biophysical environmental variables. For reef-associated environments, records for 806 taxa at 7369 sites were used to predict the probability of observing taxa based on environmental variables. Both deep-water and reef-associated bioregions were defined with cluster analysis applied to the environmental variables and predicted species observation probabilities, respectively to classify areas with high taxonomic similarity. Local experts further refined the delineation of the bioregions at national scales for four countries. This work provides marine bioregions that enable the design of ecologically representative national systems of marine protected areas within offshore and inshore environments in the Pacific.

The ecology and conservation of Cuba’s coastal and marine ecosystems

Cuba has some of the most well-protected coastal ecosystems in the Caribbean Sea, with strong marine policies and legislation, including a system of marine protected areas intended to cover 25% of its insular shelf. The crown jewel of the system, Jardines de la Reina National Park, has near pristine levels of apex predators and well-preserved coral reefs. Yet overfishing, illegal fishing, land-based pollution, and global changes, including increased bleaching events and more intense hurricanes, are widespread stressors and major threats to marine ecosystems. Limited resources have hindered Cuba's ability to address these threats. Despite having numerous shared species and resources with the United States, the political division between the two governments has resulted in limited transfer of scientific information. At the end of 2014, the Obama and Castro administrations announced that they would begin improving relations after an approximately 50- yr gap that followed the US embargo of 1962, presenting an opportunity for more scientific exchange and collaboration in environmental management. This special issue of the Bulletin of Marine Science celebrates Cuban marine science and conservation efforts, while recognizing that improved relations and increased tourism and trade could put some natural areas at risk. Joint research shows promise that Cuba, the US, and other countries can work together on regional conservation efforts.

Mainstreaming marine biodiversity into the SDGs: The role of other effective area-based conservation measures (SDG 14.5)

This article explores the concept of “other effective area-based conservation measures” (OECMs) in the context of the UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) Aichi Biodiversity Target 11 on marine protected areas and OECMs and its linkages to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). It argues that mainstreaming biodiversity through CBD Aichi Biodiversity Targets’ implementation into the SDGs can contribute to a more systemic and comprehensive implementation of SDG 14.5 on conservation of at least 10% of marine and coastal areas. It argues that OECMs can complement MPAs and contribute to ecologically representative and effectively managed marine protected areas systems integrated into broader governance systems such as marine spatial planning. Selected global and local sectoral conservation measures are therefore highlighted in this analysis as potential forms of OECMs. At the local level, a case study of ecologically or biologically significant marine areas managed as locally managed marine areas (LMMAs) in Mozambique is discussed. This case study explores how multiple-use LMMAs, which respond to short-term fisher's needs and targeted biodiversity conservation, could contribute to the achievement of specific SDGs on food security, poverty elimination and resilient ecosystems if properly supported by long-term investments, strong institutions and integrated oceans management.

American Samoa's Marine Protected Area System: Institutions, Governance, and Scale

Marine protected areas (MPAs) are a primary marine conservation strategy in the US territory of American Samoa, which has a goal to protect 20 percent of its coral reef area under “no-take” MPAs. T...

Establishing a Functional Region-Wide Coral Triangle Marine Protected Area System

The six Coral Triangle countries: Indonesia, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Solomon Islands, and Timor-Leste, each have evolving systems of marine protected areas (MPAs) at the national and local levels. Now with more than 1,900 MPAs covering 208,152 km2 (1.6% of the extended economic zone for the region), the Coral Triangle Initiative for Coral Reefs, Fisheries and Food Security has endorsed a Regional Plan of Action that contains a target of establishing a “Coral Triangle Marine Protected Area System” as part of its third goal on improving MPA management. This article details the contents of the Coral Triangle Marine Protected Area System Framework and Action Plan and describes its development and potential contribution to the improved management in the region once it is implemented. The MPA System Framework, as endorsed by the six countries, contains guidance for standardizing how MPAs and MPA networks are evaluated for effectiveness, and provides options for scaling-up existing MPAs to networks of MPAs that are more ecologically linked, integrated with fisheries management and responsive to changing climate. The Framework establishes an institutional mechanism by which the regional entity can facilitate the continued development and implementation of a region-wide MPA system that provides incentives for improved quality of management and enhanced marine area coverage at the local scale.

Developing Marine Protected Area Networks in the Coral Triangle: Good Practices for Expanding the Coral Triangle Marine Protected Area System

The Coral Triangle Marine Protected Area System aspires to become a region-wide, comprehensive, ecologically representative and well-managed system of marine protected areas (MPAs) and MPA networks. The development of this system will proceed primarily through the implementation of ecological, social, and governance MPA networks at the sub-national scale. We describe six case studies that exemplify different approaches taken to develop MPA networks in the Coral Triangle region at different scales: Nusa Penida in Indonesia; Tun Mustapha Park in Malaysia; Kimbe Bay in Papua New Guinea; Verde Island Passage in the Philippines; The Lauru Ridges to Reefs Protected Area Network in Choiseul, Solomon Islands; and Nino Konis Santana Park in Timor Leste. Through synthesis of these case studies, we identify five common themes that contributed to successful outcomes: (1) the need for multi-stakeholder and cross-level management institutions; (2) the value of integrating cutting-edge science with local knowledge and community-based management; (3) the importance of building local capacity; (4) using multiple-use zoning to balance competing objectives; and (5) participation in learning and governance networks. These lessons will be invaluable in guiding future efforts to expand the Coral Triangle Marine Protected Area System, and provide important insights for MPA practitioners elsewhere.

Introduction

This special issue provides a synthesis of the status and development of marine protected area (MPA) networks at regional, national, and subnational scales in response to the Coral Triangle Initiative on Coral Reefs, Fisheries and Food Security (CTI-CFF) commitments to establish a Coral Triangle Marine Protected Area System (CTMPAS) to reduce threats to marine resources in the region. The six articles selected describe: the status of MPAs in the Coral Triangle; key principles and strategies to apply at a regional scale under the Coral Triangle Marine Protected Area System (CTMPAS) Framework and Action Plan; successes and challenges regarding developing a regional database (the Coral Triangle Atlas) to track progress toward MPA targets; ecological considerations and guidelines for designing marine reserves to maximize benefits for fisheries management, biodiversity protection, and climate adaptation; social–economic drivers affecting marine resource use, and strategies required to improve food security and incomes; and case studies (one from each of the six countries) that exemplify different approaches, best practices, and lessons learned for developing MPA networks in the Coral Triangle. This introduction provides the context regarding the Coral Triangle and MPA commitments under the CTI-CFF, which endorsed a Regional Plan of Action for marine conservation in 2009.

Introduction: Oceans governance: Where have we been and where are we going?

Australian ocean governance faces the challenge of sustaining a balance between marine resource use and conservation while dealing with pressing threats resulting from climate change such as sea level rise, fisheries food security, IUU fishing and ocean acidification. Marine spatial planning (MSP) is a way forward for dealing with these challenges in oceans governance. This paper examines a recent Commonwealth MSP initiative in Australia: Marine Bioregional Plans (MBPs) that are based on large marine ecosystems and provide the framework for the establishment of the National Representative System of Marine Protected Areas. Four MSP conditions are introduced: use of ecosystem-based approaches; spatial orientation; integration; and a multilevel policy framework. By analysing MBPs utilising these conditions, this paper outlines the challenges and accomplishments of this MSP process.

Comparative phylogeography in Fijian coral reef fishes: a multi-taxa approach towards marine reserve design.

Delineating barriers to connectivity is important in marine reserve design as they describe the strength and number of connections among a reserve's constituent parts, and ultimately help characterize the resilience of the system to perturbations at each node. Here we demonstrate the utility of multi-taxa phylogeography in the design of a system of marine protected areas within Fiji. Gathering mtDNA control region data from five species of coral reef fish in five genera and two families, we find a range of population structure patterns, from those experiencing little (Chrysiptera talboti, Halichoeres hortulanus, and Pomacentrus maafu), to moderate (Amphiprion barberi, Φst = 0.14 and Amblyglyphidodon orbicularis Φst = 0.05) barriers to dispersal. Furthermore estimates of gene flow over ecological time scales suggest species-specific, asymmetric migration among the regions within Fiji. The diversity among species-specific results underscores the limitations of generalizing from single-taxon studies, including the inability to differentiate between a species-specific result and a replication of concordant phylogeographic patterns, and suggests that greater taxonomic coverage results in greater resolution of community dynamics within Fiji. Our results indicate that the Fijian reefs should not be managed as a single unit, and that closely related species can express dramatically different levels of population connectivity.

Marine protected areas: a multidisciplinary approach

Introduction Part I. Threats on Marine Ecosystems and Resources: 1. Transitioning from single-sector management of marine resources to ecosystem-based management: what can marine protected areas offer? Simonetta Fraschetti, Joachim Claudet and Kirsten Grorud-Colvert Part II. Effects of Marine Protected Areas 2. Ecological effects of marine protected areas: conservation, restoration and functioning Joachim Claudet, Paolo Guidetti, David Mouillot, Nick T. Shears and Fiorenza Micheli 3. Effects of marine protected areas on adjacent fisheries: evidence from empirical studies Raquel Goni, Fabio Badalamenti and Mark H. Tupper 4. Economically optimal spatial and inter-temporal fishing patterns in a metapopulation James N. Sanchirico 5. Social dynamics of scaling-up marine protected area declarations and management Patrick Christie and Richard Pollnac Part III. Assessment of Marine Protected Area Effectiveness: 6. Assessing effects of marine protected areas: confounding in space and possible solutions Craig W. Osenderg, Jeff Shima, Sonja Miller and Adrian C. Stier 7. Monitoring fisheries effects of marine protected areas: current approaches and the need for integrated assessments Vanessa Stelzenmuller and John Pinnegar 8. Bioeconomic analysis of marine protected area fisheries effects Jean Boncoeur, Olivier Thebaud and Frederique Alban 9. Assessing the impact of marine protected areas on society's well-being: an economic perspective Frederique Alban, Jean Boncoeur and Nicolas Roncin 10. Constructing and validating indicators of marine protected area effectiveness Dominique Pelletier Part IV. Scale-up of Marine Protected Area Systems: 11. The assessment of marine reserve networks: guidelines for ecological evaluation Kirsten Grorud-Colvert, Joachim Claudet, Mark Carr, Jenn Caselle, Jon Day, Alan Friedlander, Sarah Lester, Thierri Lison de Loma, Brian Tissot and Dan Malone 12. Spacing a network of marine protected areas based on connectivity data Serge Planes 13. Effectiveness of the global network of marine protected areas Camilo Mora 14. Conserving the largest habitat on earth: protected areas in the pelagic ocean Alistair Hobday, Edward T. Game, Hedley Grantham and Anthony J. Richardson Index.

Using distance sampling techniques to estimate bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) abundance at Turneffe Atoll, Belize

AbstractReliable abundance estimates are critical for management and conservation of coastal small cetaceans. This is particularly important in developing countries where coastal human populations are increasing, the impacts of anthropogenic activities are often unknown, and the resources necessary to assess coastal cetaceans are limited. We adapted ship‐based line transect methods to small‐boat surveys to estimate the abundance of bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) at Turneffe Atoll, Belize. Using a systematic survey design with random start and uniform coverage, 34 dolphin clusters were sighted during small‐boat line transect surveys conducted in 2005–2006. Distance sampling methods estimated abundance at 216 individuals (CV = 27.7%, 95% CI = 126–370). Due to species rarity in the Atoll, small sample size, and potential violations in line transect assumptions, the estimate should be considered preliminary. Nevertheless, it provides up‐to‐date information on the status of a regional population in an area under increasing threat of habitat loss and prey depletion via uncontrolled development and unsustainable fishing. This information will be useful as Belize develops a new conservation initiative to create a comprehensive and resilient marine protected area system. Our study illustrates the application of distance sampling methods to small‐boat surveys to obtain abundance estimates of coastal cetaceans in a region lacking resources.

Identificación de las prioridades de conservación de la biodiversidad marina y costera en Costa Rica

Costa Rica is recognized as one of the most diverse countries in species and ecosystems, in their terrestrial realm as well as in the marine. Besides this relevance, the country presents a delay on conservation and management of marine and coastal biodiversity, with respect to terrestrial. For 2006, the marine protected surface was 5,208.8 km2, with 331.5 km of coastline, in 20 protected areas. The country has made progress on the conservation priority sites identification for terrestrial and freshwater biodiversity, with few efforts on marine planning. This research presents the analysis and results of the gap identification process, for marine and coastal biodiversity conservation in the protected areas system of Costa Rica. The analysis was built with the spatial information available on the presence and distribution of coastal and marine biodiversity, the establishment of the conservation goals and a threat analysis over the ecological integrity of this biodiversity. The selection of high-priority sites was carried out using spatial optimization techniques and the superposition over the current shape of marine protected areas, in order to identify representation gaps. A total of 19,076 km2 of conservation gaps were indentified, with 1,323 km2 in the Caribbean and 17,753 km2 in the Pacific. Recommendations are aimed at planning and strengthening the marine protected areas system, using the gaps identified as a framework. It is expected that the results of this study would be the scientific base needed for planning and sustainable use of marine biodiversity in the country.

Land Use Dynamics in a Marine Protected Area System in Lower Andaman Coast of Thailand, 1990–2005

Abstract This study has depicted a scenario on assessing spatial and temporal land use/cover changes in and adjacent to marine protected areas (MPA) in a study site in Thailand. The measurement of landscape stability and its implications for protection and conservation of coastal resources are emphasized in this study. The methods employed include interpretation and analysis of satellite images, aerial photographs, and geographic information system (GIS) data. Image analysis and GIS techniques have been used extensively, and a site-specific geospatial database was developed accordingly. Initial temporal changes inside and outside protected areas are captured from visual interpretation of three time series satellite images, where an increase of aquaculture ponds and abandoned areas is clearly visible. The output changes derived from the image differencing techniques demonstrated considerable changes in the whole study area as well as inside the protected area boundary during 1976 to 1990. Compared to the e...

Doom and Boom on a Resilient Reef: Climate Change, Algal Overgrowth and Coral Recovery

BackgroundCoral reefs around the world are experiencing large-scale degradation, largely due to global climate change, overfishing, diseases and eutrophication. Climate change models suggest increasing frequency and severity of warming-induced coral bleaching events, with consequent increases in coral mortality and algal overgrowth. Critically, the recovery of damaged reefs will depend on the reversibility of seaweed blooms, generally considered to depend on grazing of the seaweed, and replenishment of corals by larvae that successfully recruit to damaged reefs. These processes usually take years to decades to bring a reef back to coral dominance.Methodology/Principal FindingsIn 2006, mass bleaching of corals on inshore reefs of the Great Barrier Reef caused high coral mortality. Here we show that this coral mortality was followed by an unprecedented bloom of a single species of unpalatable seaweed (Lobophora variegata), colonizing dead coral skeletons, but that corals on these reefs recovered dramatically, in less than a year. Unexpectedly, this rapid reversal did not involve reestablishment of corals by recruitment of coral larvae, as often assumed, but depended on several ecological mechanisms previously underestimated.Conclusions/SignificanceThese mechanisms of ecological recovery included rapid regeneration rates of remnant coral tissue, very high competitive ability of the corals allowing them to out-compete the seaweed, a natural seasonal decline in the particular species of dominant seaweed, and an effective marine protected area system. Our study provides a key example of the doom and boom of a highly resilient reef, and new insights into the variability and mechanisms of reef resilience under rapid climate change.

Challenges in developing China's marine protected area system

Since the 1980s, there have been continuous increases in the coverage of marine protected areas (MPAs) in China, and a total of 158 MPAs have been declared. The MPA system in China is characterized by (1) decentralised designation and management with reduced control from the central government; (2) a dominance of de jure fully protected MPAs that are often implemented as de facto multiple-use areas; and (3) a lack of objective evaluation processes. To improve China's MPA system requires an appropriate integration of fully protected and multiple-use MPAs, and an approach that balances the advantages of top-down and bottom-up approaches.