Marijuana Laws Research Articles

Race/Ethnicity Differences in Trends of Marijuana, Cigarette, and Alcohol Use Among 8th, 10th, and 12th Graders in Washington State, 2004-2016.

Accurate estimates of substance use in the teenage years by race/ethnicity may help identify when to intervene to prevent long-term substance use disparities. We examined trends in past 30-day use of marijuana, cigarette, and alcohol among 8th, 10th, and 12th graders in Washington State, which passed a recreational marijuana law in 2012 and initiated retail marijuana sales in 2014. Data are from the 2004-2016 Washington Healthy Youth Surveys (n = 161,992). We used time series regression models to assess linear and quadratic trends in substance use for the full sample and stratified on race/ethnicity and grade level and examined relative differences in prevalence of use by race/ethnicity. In Washington, across all racial/ethnic groups, marijuana use peaked in 2012. Although there was not a significant overall change in marijuana use for the full sample across the study period, there was a statistically significant increase in use among 12th graders and a statistically significant decrease among 8th graders. Relative to Whites, Asians had a lower prevalence of marijuana use, whereas all other race/ethnicity groups had a higher prevalence of use. Prevalence of marijuana use is particularly high among American Indian/Alaska Native and Black youth and has increased most rapidly among 12th grade Hispanic/Latinx youth. There were large and statistically significant decreases in alcohol and cigarette use across the study period for the full sample, as well as for each race/ethnicity group. These findings highlight the need for continued monitoring of trends in use among these groups and potentially warrant consideration of selective interventions that specifically focus on students of color and that include developmentally-appropriate strategies relevant to each grade.

Association of Medical and Adult-Use Marijuana Laws With Opioid Prescribing for Medicaid Enrollees

Overprescribing of opioids is considered a major driving force behind the opioid epidemic in the United States. Marijuana is one of the potential nonopioid alternatives that can relieve pain at a relatively lower risk of addiction and virtually no risk of overdose. Marijuana liberalization, including medical and adult-use marijuana laws, has made marijuana available to more Americans. To examine the association of state implementation of medical and adult-use marijuana laws with opioid prescribing rates and spending among Medicaid enrollees. This cross-sectional study used a quasi-experimental difference-in-differences design comparing opioid prescribing trends between states that started to implement medical and adult-use marijuana laws between 2011 and 2016 and the remaining states. This population-based study across the United States included all Medicaid fee-for-service and managed care enrollees, a high-risk population for chronic pain, opioid use disorder, and opioid overdose. State implementation of medical and adult-use marijuana laws from 2011 to 2016. Opioid prescribing rate, measured as the number of opioid prescriptions covered by Medicaid on a quarterly, per-1000-Medicaid-enrollee basis. State implementation of medical marijuana laws was associated with a 5.88% lower rate of opioid prescribing (95% CI, -11.55% to approximately -0.21%). Moreover, the implementation of adult-use marijuana laws, which all occurred in states with existing medical marijuana laws, was associated with a 6.38% lower rate of opioid prescribing (95% CI, -12.20% to approximately -0.56%). The potential of marijuana liberalization to reduce the use and consequences of prescription opioids among Medicaid enrollees deserves consideration during the policy discussions about marijuana reform and the opioid epidemic.

Heterogeneity of state medical marijuana laws and adolescent recent use of alcohol and marijuana: Analysis of 45 states, 1991–2011

Objective: To assess associations between enactment of state medical marijuana laws (MMLs), MML restrictiveness, and past-30-day youth alcohol use overall, and in relation to marijuana use. Method: This quasi-experimental difference-in-difference designed study used state-level Youth Risk Behavior Survey data of 9th–12th grade students in 45 states from 1991–2011 (N D 715,014). We conducted bivariate (unadjusted) and multivariable (adjusted for state, year, individual characteristics) logistic regression analyses to examine the effect of MML enactment (yes/no) and less restrictive vs. more restrictive MMLs on five varying measures of past 30-day alcohol use (i.e., any use or binge) and alcohol and marijuana use behaviors. Results: In the final adjusted analyses, MML enactment was associated with lower odds of adolescent past 30-day (1) alcohol use (OR D 0.92, [0.87, 0.97], p < .01) and (2) use of both alcohol and marijuana (OR D 0.93, [0.87, 0.99], p < .05). States with less restrictive MMLs had lower odds of past 30-day (1) alcohol use (OR D 0.94, [0.92, 0.97], p < .001), (2) binge drinking (OR D 0.96, [0.93, 0.97], p < .05), (3) alcohol use without any marijuana use (OR D 0.96, [0.93, 0.99], p < .01), and (4) use of both alcohol and marijuana (OR D 0.96, [0.92, 0.99], p < .05). Conclusions: This study found that enactment of any MML, and of less restrictive MMLs, was associated with lower odds of past 30-day adolescent alcohol use among adolescents. With continued change in state marijuana laws, it is important to monitor the effect of their enactment and implementation, as well as their specific provisions (e.g. dispensaries, home cultivation), which may differentially affect adolescent behaviors.

Leveraging Marijuana Reform to Enhance Expungement Practices

States reforming marijuana laws should be particularly concerned with remedying the past inequities and burdens of mass criminalization. State marijuana reforms should not only offer robust retroactive ameliorative relief opportunities for prior marijuana offenses, but also dedicate resources generated by marijuana reform to create and fund new institutions to assess and serve the needs of a broad array of offenders looking to remedy the collateral consequences of prior involvement in the criminal justice system. So far, California stands out among reform states for coupling repeal of marijuana prohibition with robust efforts to enable and ensure the erasure of past marijuana convictions. In addition to encouraging marijuana reform states to follow California’s lead in enacting broad ameliorative legislation, this essay urges policy makers and reform advocates to see the value of linking and leveraging the commitments and spirit of modern marijuana reform and expungement movements. Part II begins with a brief review of the history of marijuana prohibition giving particular attention to social and racial dynamics integral to prohibition, its enforcement and now its reform. Part III turns to recent reform activities focused on mitigating the punitive collateral consequences of a criminal conviction with a focus on the (mostly limited) efforts of marijuana reform states to foster the erasure of marijuana convictions. Part IV sketches a novel proposal for connecting modern marijuana reform and expungement movements. This part suggest a new criminal justice institution, a Commission on Justice Restoration, to be funded by the taxes, fees and other revenues generated by marijuana reforms and to be tasked with proactively working on policies and practices designed to minimize and ameliorate undue collateral consequences for people with criminal convictions.

Limit liability for medical marijuana use on campus

CLEARWATER BEACH, FLORIDA — In just five years, an increasing number of states (at least 10) have approved the legalized recreational use of marijuana. Meanwhile, 29 other states, plus Washington, D.C., Puerto Rico, and Guam, have legalized medical marijuana. Nine of those states passed medical marijuana laws that include explicit anti‐discrimination protections for employees who hold a medical marijuana card. And 17 states allow some use of at least one component of the drug, such as THC, according to Katrina Chapman, Esq., a partner with Holland &amp; Knight LLP.

Self-medication of mood and anxiety disorders with marijuana: Higher in states with medical marijuana laws

BackgroundSelf-medication with drugs or alcohol is commonly reported among adults with mood or anxiety disorders, and increases the risk of developing substance use disorders. Medical marijuana laws (MML) may be associated with greater acceptance of the therapeutic value of marijuana, leading individuals to self-medicate. MethodsThe study utilized data from Wave 2 of the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions (2004–2005). Participants were sampled from households in the general population and included adults with a mood or anxiety disorder in the past 12 months (n = 7418), and the subset of those who used marijuana and no other drug (n = 314). Weighted logistic regression models predicted the prevalence of self-medication with drugs in U.S. states with and without MML, adjusting for individual and state-level covariates. As a negative control, analyses were repeated for self-medication with alcohol. ResultsOverall, self-medication with drugs was 3.73 percentage points higher (95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.93–6.53) among those living in MML states (p = 0.01). For the subpopulation that only used marijuana, self-medication with drugs was 21.22 percentage points higher (95% CI: 3.91–38.53) among those living in MML states (p = 0.02). In contrast, self-medication with alcohol had nearly identical prevalence in MML and non-MML states, overall and for drinkers. ConclusionsAmong adults with mood or anxiety disorders, living in a medical marijuana law state is associated with self-medication with marijuana. While additional research is needed to determine the reasons for this association, clinical screening for self-medication with marijuana may be particularly important in states with medical marijuana laws.

Medical Marijuana Laws and Marijuana Use Among U.S. Adolescents: Evidence From Michigan Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance Data.

Research findings are inconsistent regarding a positive association between the passage of state medical marijuana laws (MML) and the adolescent access and the use of marijuana. We utilized a novel analytical approach to examine this issue with multiyear data from the 1997-2013 Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System of the State of Michigan. After controlling for the historically declining trend in marijuana use prior to the passages of MML in Michigan, we found that marijuana use among adolescents had increased subsequent to the passage of state MML. The study findings suggest the need for considering the increased risk of marijuana use in adolescents, as more states have implemented laws permitting marijuana use.

Washington State Retail Marijuana Legalization: Parent and Adolescent Preferences for Marijuana Messages in a Sample of Low-Income Families.

As legalization of nonmedical retail marijuana increases, states are implementing public health campaigns designed to prevent increases in youth marijuana use. This study investigated which types of marijuana-related messages were rated most highly by parents and their teens and whether these preferences differed by age and marijuana use. Nine marijuana-focused messages were developed as potential radio, newspaper, or television announcements. The messages fell into four categories: information about the law, general advice/conversation starters, consequences of marijuana use/positive alternatives, and information on potential harmful effects of teen marijuana use. The messages were presented through an online survey to 282 parent (84% female) and 283 teen (54% female) participants in an ongoing study in Washington State. Both parents and youth rated messages containing information about the law higher than other types of messages. Messages about potential harms of marijuana use were rated lower than other messages by both generations. Parents who had used marijuana within the past year (n = 80) rated consequence/positive alternative messages lower than parent nonusers (n = 199). Youth marijuana users (n = 77) and nonusers (n = 202) both rated messages containing information about the law higher than other types of messages. Youth users and nonusers were less likely than parents to believe messages on the harmful effects of marijuana. The high ratings for messages based on information about the marijuana law highlight the need for informational health campaigns to be established as a first step in the marijuana legalization process.

Interpretation of California's Marijuana Regulations after Proposition 64 and Pharmacy Practice Roles in Medical Marijuana Dispensing against Federal Enforcement Risks

California was the first state in the union to pass medical marijuana legislation with Proposition 215, the voter enacted California Compassionate Use Act (CCUA, 1996), though regulatory oversight for the medical marijuana industry was negligible over the next 20 years. In 2015, California legislators passed the Medical Marijuana Regulation and Safety Act (MMRSA), providing a new and comprehensive regulatory framework for medical marijuana, subsequently renaming it the Medical Cannabis Regulation and Safety Act (MCRSA), with a planned implementation of January 1, 2018. In 2016, California's marijuana landscape dramatically changed with the Adult Use of Marijuana Act (AUMA), also known as Proposition 64 (“Prop 64”), a voter initiative successful in legalizing recreational marijuana, where many prior similar initiatives had failed. In 2017, California lawmakers merged the two Acts (MCRSA and AUMA) into the Medical and Adult Use of Cannabis Regulation and Safety Act, (MAUCRSA), known as Senate Bill 94 (SB 94), which passed overwhelmingly and created a single comprehensive marijuana regulatory scheme for California by integrating the 2015 recreational marijuana law with the state's longstanding medical marijuana program, also effective in January 2018. Given the current national marijuana landscape and political climate, California's novel unified model for regulating and taxing marijuana will likely influence how other states proceed to regulate and tax the emerging legal marijuana industry, which has an estimated value of $7 billion. Part One of this article provides an overview of the soon to be effective “harmonized” regulatory scheme for California's medicinal and recreational marijuana industries, touching on its potential to influence other states. Part Two surveys the changed national marijuana landscape within which three states have already implemented a role for pharmacists in medical marijuana dispensing, despite that under the federal Controlled Substances Act, as a Schedule I substance, marijuana remains illegal for any purpose. The recent developments have not surprisingly triggered questions about a pharmacist's liability vis a vis marijuana dispensing and federal enforcement risks. Part Two also attempts to answer those questions through an informative discussion of the national marijuana landscape, the current political climate, and their respective influences on federal marijuana policy and enforcement.

Medical marijuana laws and adolescent marijuana use in the United States: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

AimsTo conduct a systematic review and meta‐analysis of studies in order to estimate the effect of US medical marijuana laws (MMLs) on past‐month marijuana use prevalence among adolescents.MethodsA total of 2999 papers from 17 literature sources were screened systematically. Eleven studies, developed from four ongoing large national surveys, were meta‐analyzed. Estimates of MML effects on any past‐month marijuana use prevalence from included studies were obtained from comparisons of pre–post MML changes in MML states to changes in non‐MML states over comparable time‐periods. These estimates were standardized and entered into a meta‐analysis model with fixed‐effects for each study. Heterogeneity among the study estimates by national data survey was tested with an omnibus F‐test. Estimates of effects on additional marijuana outcomes, of MML provisions (e.g. dispensaries) and among demographic subgroups were abstracted and summarized. Key methodological and modeling characteristics were also described. Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta‐Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines were followed.ResultsNone of the 11 studies found significant estimates of pre–post MML changes compared with contemporaneous changes in non‐MML states for marijuana use prevalence among adolescents. The meta‐analysis yielded a non‐significant pooled estimate (standardized mean difference) of −0.003 (95% confidence interval = −0.012, +0.007). Four studies compared MML with non‐MML states on pre‐MML differences and all found higher rates of past‐month marijuana use in MML states pre‐MML passage. Additional tests of specific MML provisions, of MML effects on additional marijuana outcomes and among subgroups generally yielded non‐significant results, although limited heterogeneity may warrant further study.ConclusionsSynthesis of the current evidence does not support the hypothesis that US medical marijuana laws (MMLs) until 2014 have led to increases in adolescent marijuana use prevalence. Limited heterogeneity exists among estimates of effects of MMLs on other patterns of marijuana use, of effects within particular population subgroups and of effects of specific MML provisions.

Do medical marijuana laws reduce addictions and deaths related to pain killers?

Recent work finds that medical marijuana laws reduce the daily doses filled for opioid analgesics among Medicare Part-D and Medicaid enrollees, as well as population-wide opioid overdose deaths. We replicate the result for opioid overdose deaths and explore the potential mechanism. The key feature of a medical marijuana law that facilitates a reduction in overdose death rates is a relatively liberal allowance for dispensaries. As states have become more stringent in their regulation of dispensaries, the protective value generally has fallen. These findings suggest that broader access to medical marijuana facilitates substitution of marijuana for powerful and addictive opioids.

THE EFFECT OF LEGALIZING RETAIL MARIJUANA ON HOUSING VALUES: EVIDENCE FROM COLORADO

Does legalizing retail marijuana generate more benefits than costs? This paper provides a first step toward addressing that question by measuring the benefits and costs that are capitalized into housing values. We exploit the time‐series and cross‐sectional variations in the adoption of Colorado's municipality retail marijuana laws (RMLs) and examine the effect on housing values with a difference‐in‐differences strategy. Our estimates show that the legalization leads to an average 6% increase in housing values, indicating that the capitalized benefits outweigh the costs. In addition, we find suggestive evidence that this relatively large housing value appreciation is likely due to RMLs inducing strong housing demand while having no discernible effect on housing supply. Finally, we show that the effect of RMLs is heterogeneous across locations and property types. (JEL K20, R28)

“Pot”reneurial Politics: The Budgetary Highs and Lows of Recreational Marijuana Policy Innovation

Public‐ and elite‐level interest concerning recreational marijuana is increasing, thanks in large part to the successful legalization campaigns in four states. Scholars, however, have yet to systemically assess how states allocate and manage marijuana‐related dollars. Some states likely prefer “tight” budgetary control, suggesting that remitted marijuana dollars are largely earmarked to specific purposes. Other states might opt for “looser” budgetary mechanisms, giving law makers more freedom in how they spend marijuana revenues. States may also vary in the tax rates applied to marijuana purchases with some states preferring to charge higher rates. Using information drawn from primary sources, we assess which factors are most helpful in accounting for the budgetary innovations related to recreational marijuana revenues.Related Articles Lamothe, Scott. 2004. “.” Politics &amp; Policy 32 (): 684‐707. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1747-1346.2004.tb00201.x/full Bernick, Ethan M., and Nathan Myers. 2012. “.” Politics &amp; Policy 40 (): 131‐159. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1747-1346.2011.00340.x/full Adams, Brian E. 2016. “.” Politics &amp; Policy 44 (): 820‐849. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/polp.12172/full Related Media Brookings. 2014. “The Nation Continues to Embrace Marijuana Legalization.” November 5. https://www.brookings.edu/blog/fixgov/2014/11/05/the-nation-continues-to-embrace-marijuana-legalization/ C‐Span. 2014. “Ballot Measures on Marijuana.” November 8. https://www.c-span.org/video/?322625-5/washington-journal-john-hudak-ballot-measures-marijuana Governing States and Localities. 2017. “State Marijuana Laws in 2017 Map.” http://www.governing.com/gov-data/state-marijuana-laws-map-medical-recreational.html

RETRACTED: Investigating the effects of medical marijuana laws on educational attainment

This article has been retracted: please see Elsevier Policy on Article Withdrawal (http://www.elsevier.com/locate/withdrawalpolicy).This article has been retracted at the request of the authors. The main set of results appeared earlier in a paper by Plunk et al (2016), that should have been cited. Both papers use similar methods and reach the same conclusions using different data:“The impact of adolescent exposure to medical marijuana laws on high school completion, college enrollment and college degree completion” by Andrew D. Plunk, Arpana Agrawal, Paul T. Harrell, William F. Tate, Kelli England Will, Jennifer M. Mellor and Richard A. Grucza. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 168 (2016) 320–327. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2016.09.002

Leveraging Marijuana Reform to Enhance Expungement Practices

States reforming marijuana laws should be particularly concerned with remedying the past inequities and burdens of mass criminalization. State marijuana reforms should not only offer robust retroactive ameliorative relief opportunities for prior marijuana offenses, but also dedicate resources generated by marijuana reform to create and fund new institutions to assess and serve the needs of a broad array of offenders looking to remedy the collateral consequences of prior involvement in the criminal justice system. So far, California stands out among reform states for coupling repeal of marijuana prohibition with robust efforts to enable and ensure the erasure of past marijuana convictions. In addition to encouraging marijuana reform states to follow California’s lead in enacting broad ameliorative legislation, this essay urges policy makers and reform advocates to see the value of linking and leveraging the commitments and spirit of modern marijuana reform and expungement movements. Part II begins with a brief review of the history of marijuana prohibition giving particular attention to social and racial dynamics integral to prohibition, its enforcement and now its reform. Part III turns to recent reform activities focused on mitigating the punitive collateral consequences of a criminal conviction with a focus on the (mostly limited) efforts of marijuana reform states to foster the erasure of marijuana convictions. Part IV sketches a novel proposal for connecting modern marijuana reform and expungement movements. This part suggest a new criminal justice institution, a Commission on Justice Restoration, to be funded by the taxes, fees and other revenues generated by marijuana reforms and to be tasked with proactively working on policies and practices designed to minimize and ameliorate undue collateral consequences for people with criminal convictions.

Conceptualising a policy framework for the implementation of medical marijuana in the Caribbean territory of Barbados

Unlike the recent global trend of a decline in the prohibition of the use of Cannabis sativa for recreational and medical uses, Barbados and other small island states in the Caribbean have maintained their prohibitive legislation and policies on the use of the herb. A negative social construct of the use of cannabis and its effects in the consciousness of many in the Caribbean have contributed to the maintenance of the prohibitive policies towards the use of the herb. This article highlights the negative societal construct of the herb and its impact on the youth as two critical factors limiting the implementation of medical marijuana laws. It conceptualises a possible policy framework that would address this issue by enabling a phased implementation of the use of medicinal products from marijuana in the management of selected conditions from an evidence-based vantage point. Barbados would need to evaluate the mechanisms under current prohibitive legislation and create amendments to allow for an incremental approach on the use of the plant or products thereof for medicinal purposes in light of societal concerns. The policy framework should result in discreet enforceable mechanisms to facilitate and monitor the importation and development of efficacious and safe medicinal products for prescribing to authorised patients throughout the island’s healthcare system.

Who Fears the Reaper? Medical Marijuana Laws and Labor Market Outcomes

Who Fears the Reaper? Medical Marijuana Laws and Labor Market Outcomes

Sex, Drugs, and Baby Booms: Can Behavior Overcome Biology?

We study the behavioral changes due to marijuana consumption on fertility and its key mechanisms, as opposed to physiological changes. We can employ several large proprietary data sets, including the 1997 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, Nielsen Retail Scanner database, as well as the Vital Statistics Natality files and apply a differences-in-differences approach by exploiting the timing of the introduction of medical marijuana laws among states. We first replicate the earlier literature by showing that marijuana use increases after the passage of medical marijuana laws. Our novel results reveal that birth rates increased after the passage of a law corresponding to increased frequency of sexual intercourse, decreased purchase of condoms and suggestive evidence on decreased condom use during sex. More sex and less contraceptive use may be attributed to behavioral responses such as increased attention to the immediate hedonic effects of sexual contact, delayed discounting and ignoring costs associated with risky sex. These findings are consistent with a large observational literature linking marijuana use with increased sexual activity and multiple partners. Our findings are robust to a broad set of tests.

Legalized marijuana: Language-associated knowledge of laws and risk perceptions among Latinos

ABSTRACTThis study examines the extent to which knowledge of recreational marijuana laws, health effects, and perceptions of risk for marijuana use differ between Spanish- and English-speaking Latino survey respondents from a registry of Colorado adults. Spanish-speaking Latino respondents (n = 47) had less accurate knowledge of laws permitting use of marijuana than English-speaking Latino respondents (n = 154), while reporting greater agreement with negative health effects and higher perception of risk associated with marijuana use. The results suggest that efforts to communicate health and informational messaging to the public about legalized marijuana should consider linguistic variations when tailoring campaigns for Latino audiences.

The status of support for cannabis regulation in Uruguay 4 years after reform: Evidence from public opinion surveys.

The objective of this study was to measure the public support for marijuana legalisation in Uruguay, both overall and in its provisions, in nearly 4 years after its implementation. Three separate cross-national surveys were conducted in early 2014, late 2015 and mid-2017 with national representative samples of adults. The first study was carried out during the initial months of implementation of the law and used face-to-face interviews (N = 1490); the second survey was conducted using a computer-assisted telephone interviewing system (N = 703); and the third study (N = 1515), using face-to-face interviews, was completed just before the implementation of pharmacy sales. About 60.7% of respondents in 2014 were against marijuana legalisation; in 2017, 54.1% remained opposed to the marijuana law. In 2015, half of the people interviewed (49.9%) supported access to marijuana through self-cultivation, while 38.6% favoured the provision of cannabis clubs and 33.1% agreed with the pharmacy retail provision. Support for medical cannabis was high in 2015, with 74.5% favouring it. This study shows a change in the public opinion toward legalisation of marijuana although most people still remain opposed to the law. However, the data do not provide indication of a significant change in its use. Results suggest that opposition to legalisation may be focused on the pharmacy retail provision.