Marginal Occupation Research Articles

Interspecific interactions among major carnivores in Panna Tiger Reserve: A multispecies occupancy approach

AbstractLarge carnivores play a crucial role in trophic cascades, affecting the population dynamics of both co‐predators and prey within an ecosystem. Understanding the significance of these carnivores in trophic interactions is essential for developing effective conservation and management strategies. We examined the effects of occupancy dynamics and patterns of species interactions and coexistence within the carnivore guild in the Panna Tiger Reserve in India. We collected camera trap data (two seasons, 2019) in a presence–absence framework and applied multispecies occupancy models to assess the occupancy, co‐occurrence, and interactions among species. We also examined activity overlap to understand the temporal segregation in the carnivore guild. The mean marginal occupancy was highest for leopards in winter (Ψwinter 0.92 ± 0.02, Ψsummer 0.63 ± 0.05) and hyenas in summer (Ψsummer 0.93 ± 0.03, Ψwinter 0.78 ± 0.03) and was lowest for tigers in both seasons (Ψwinter 0.62 ± 0.05, Ψsummer 0.15 ± 0.05). Co‐occurrence probability among carnivores was higher in winter than in summer, and conditional occupancy was consistently higher when other species were present. Different environmental factors influenced marginal occupancy and co‐occurrence patterns across seasons. Strong temporal overlaps were recorded between tiger–leopard (0.87–0.91) and tiger–hyena (0.78–0.79). We detected a significant spatial segregation between tigers and leopards, as they prefer different habitat types in different seasons, along with high temporal overlap. Resource availability strongly governs the association of carnivores with their habitat selection. Hyenas demonstrated higher dependency on tigers than on leopards for resources. These findings indicate that coexistence with apex‐predator species is feasible through strategic adaptation to fulfill resource requisition.

Radon exposure and its influencing factors across 3,140 workplaces in Spain

Indoor radon exposure increases the risk of lung cancer. Radon concentration in workplaces is regulated in EU countries, including Spain, based on a reference level of 300 Bq/m3. The objective of this study is to describe workplace radon exposure in Spain and its influencing factors. To do this, we collected long-term radon measurements with alpha track detectors in 3140 workplaces mainly located in radon prone areas. Radon concentration exceeded 300 Bq/m3 in 1 out of 5 workplaces. Median radon concentration was 107 Bq/m3 in radon prone areas, 28 Bq/m3 off radon prone areas, and 101 Bq/m3 globally for the complete sample. Our results indicate that excessive radon concentrations can be expected in radon prone areas at all floor levels, especially below ground. Floor level, working sector, and location significantly influence radon concentration. The highest radon concentrations were found in the Education & Culture sector, comprising schools, universities, libraries, or cultural centers. These results indicate that radon should no longer be considered a risk for marginal occupations, but a risk everyone has if located in a radon prone area. Immediate action, including radon testing and mitigation, is needed to protect workers in Spain against radon exposure. This is already mandatory since EU regulation for radon has been recently transposed in Spain. Competent authorities should enforce this regulation without further delay, and employers must address their responsibility and communicate with workers about this risk.

A Model for Cell Proliferation in a Developing Organism

In mathematical biology, there is a great deal of interest in producing continuum models by scaling discrete agent-based models governed by local stochastic rules. We discuss a particular example of this approach: a model for the proliferation of neural crest cells that can help us understand the development of Hirschprung’s disease, a potentially-fatal condition in which the enteric nervous system of a new-born child does not extend all the way through the intestine and colon. Our starting point is a discrete-state, continuous-time Markov chain model proposed by Hywood et al. (2013a) for the location of the neural crest cells that make up the enteric nervous system. Hywood et al. (2013a) scaled their model to derive an approximate second order partial differential equation describing how the limiting expected number of neural crest cells evolve in space and time. In contrast, we exploit the relationship between the above-mentioned Markov chain model and the well-known Yule-Furry process to derive the exact form of the scaled version of the process. Furthermore, we provide expressions for other features of the domain agent occupancy process, such as the variance of the marginal occupancy at a particular site, the distribution of the number of agents that are yet to reach a given site and a stochastic description of the process itself.

Sinitic Poetry in Early Heian Japan: Kidendō Literacy, Banquet Culture, and the Sugawara House

In this paper, I explore the intimate connection between the Sugawara House and the composition of Sinitic poetry for institutionalised poetry banquets in early Heian Japan. While poetry remained a marginal occupation for the Confucian scholars trained at the Bureau of Education, its performance at banquets constituted a prestigious niche that could be occupied by those who sought to exploit it as an autonomous form of cultural capital. Here I sketch the contours of this connection and analyse a number of anthologizing strategies at work in the personal collection of the renowned early Heian scholar and poet Sugawara no Michizane (845-903) known as Kanke bunsō (Literary Drafts of the Sugawara House).

Marriage and Population Growth Anthropological Comparative Study in Kirkuk City

The city of Kirkuk is one of the disputed cities between the Kurdistan Regional Government and Baghdad. In the Iraqi Constitution 2005, through Article 140, the constitutional solution to this problem was decided, through (normalization, the census of the city’s population, the referendum). This process is depending on the number of population .
 The simple marriage habits of Arabs and the difficulty of Kurdish marriage led to rapid population growth among Arabs..
 Population growth is influenced by a wide array of social and cultural variables including social customs, marriage levels, birth rate, and family size and so on.
 The Kurdish rural community has been dismantled since the 1980s, while the Arab rural society is in a state of continuous growth. Moreover, the Kurdish population is concentrated inside the city and practices urban or marginal occupations, while the Arab population has become widely distributed in villages, districts and within the city, practicing pastoral, agricultural, governmental, security and military occupations. The Arab rural community is also characterized by high demographic growth due to early marriage, lack of family planning and polygamy, while the Kurdish urban population is characterized by a low population due to delayed marriages, birth control and civil marriage. Furthermore, the average size of Kurdish family is between (3 to 5 persons), while the average size of Arab family, especially in rural areas, ranges between 8 and 10. The process of marriage in Arab society is easy and does not cost much while this process tends to be more costly in Kurdish community. It is worth mentioning that the migration of Kurdish youth outwards or the migration of Kurdish families to Kurdistan Region is high, while migration for many Arab families and their young members tend to be towards Kirkuk city. The percentage of spinsterhood in Kurdish society is higher compare to Arab community. Therefore, we expect that the percentage of Kurds in Kirkuk will fall to (38%) in 2030, after it was 48% in the 1957. And the percentage of Arabs in Kirkuk will arise to (35%) in 2030, after it was 21% in the 1957.

Trading off wage for workplace safety? Gaps between immigrants and natives in Italy

We employ Italian administrative data to analyze the differentials in wages and workplace injuries between immigrants and natives over the 1994–2012 period. Via propensity score reweighting, we construct the factual and counterfactual, marginal and joint distributions of wages and workplace injuries. Examining the differentials along the entire distributions, our approach yields novel insights on their potential drivers. Our findings confirm that immigrants face lower wages and a substantially higher injury risk than natives; futhermore, they highlight that foreign-born workers display a disproportionate concentration of injuries around the minimum contractual wages. Our results show that the latter can be interpreted as an unintended effect of minimum contractual wages. Indeed, if wages are downward rigid and workplace safety investments are costly, firms employing low-wage workers may reallocate their savings away from wages onto safety. Over time, the gap is found to shrink. Our analysis suggests that, beyond the reduction in workplace intensity during recessions, this may be due to destruction of marginal jobs. Being disproportionally concentrated in marginal occupations, then, lower-skilled migrant workers are more vulnerable to downturns in the economic cycle. Overall, our results highlight that labour market segmentation may co-exist with wage regulations.

Use of the Ready –to-Use Therapeutic Foods (RUTFs), for the Management of Malnutrition in People Living with HIV/AIDS in Omdurman Hospital (VCT Centre)

This study is an observational before and after randomized controlled trial study, using routinely collected data. The main objective is to evaluate the outcomes of patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) provided with Ready-to-use therapeutic food (RUTF) and nutritional counseling. A total of 7 HIV patients were selected from those who attending Omdurman VCT Center at Omdurman Teaching Hospital during the period from September 2008 to March 2009.. Primary data was collected directly from HIV patients who attended Omdurman VCT Center at Omdurman Teaching Hospital using a questionnaire in addition to a checklist to record weight changes during intake of food regimen (RUTF). The Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 12.0 was used for data analysis. Results showed that 71.4% of the respondents in the age group 31–40 years, 71.4% were males and 28.6% were females. Most of the respondents (57.1%) were married, having marginal occupations. The majority of the respondents (71.4%) used pre ARV drugs as major medication, of them, 42.9% used it for a period from 6 months to one year. The majority of the respondents (85.7%) did not complain about any type of food and drug interactions. The average Body Mass Index of the respondents (BMI) showed a relatively normal range (18–25). Use of RUTF showed improvement effect on patients, where T-test showed that there are significant differences in median weights between patients and the control group (P ≤ 0.05). The study highly recommends conduction of detailed studies on the importance of RUTF and other nutritional aspects for HIV/AIDS.

Environmental Gradients and Overlapping Ranges of Dominant Coastal Wetland Plants in Weeks Bay, AL

Predicted changes in sea level and other environmental conditions may threaten the marginal occupancy of coastal wetlands. In a field survey conducted in Weeks Bay, AL, we investigated intertidal wetland plant zonation along environmental gradients. The results of this survey may have implications for coastal wetland resilience both locally and across the Northern Gulf of Mexico as changing environmental conditions exceed plant community tolerances, resulting in “coastal squeeze” phenomena. Within the coastal marsh transition of Weeks Bay, there was heterogeneous micro-topography with a large overlap of plant distributions along the elevation gradient (-0.474–0.661m NAVD 88). In addition to elevation, salinity was a primary indicator of plant zonation for the dominant species in the area: Spartina cynosuroides (Big Cordgrass), Juncus roemerianus (Black Needlerush), and Cladium mariscus ssp. jamaicense (Swamp Sawgrass). Based on our findings, the persistence of these plants in the intertidal zone of Weeks Bay may be especially susceptible to changes in flooding and salinity associated with sea-level rise and the presence of barriers to upslope migration.

Lions and leopards coexist without spatial, temporal or demographic effects of interspecific competition.

Although interspecific competition plays a principal role in shaping species behaviour and demography, little is known about the population-level outcomes of competition between large carnivores, and the mechanisms that facilitate coexistence. We conducted a multilandscape analysis of two widely distributed, threatened large carnivore competitors to offer insight into coexistence strategies and assist with species-level conservation. We evaluated how interference competition affects occupancy, temporal activity and population density of a dominant competitor, the lion (Panthera leo), and its subordinate competitor, the leopard (Panthera pardus). We collected camera-trap data over 3years in 10 study sites covering 5,070km2 . We used multispecies occupancy modelling to assess spatial responses in varying environmental and prey conditions and competitor presence, and examined temporal overlap and the relationship between lion and leopard densities across sites and years. Results showed that both lion and leopard occupancy was independent of-rather than conditional on-their competitor's presence across all environmental covariates. Marginal occupancy probability for leopard was higher in areas with more bushy, "hideable" habitat, human (tourist) activity and topographic ruggedness, whereas lion occupancy decreased with increasing hideable habitat and increased with higher abundance of very large prey. Temporal overlap was high between carnivores, and there was no detectable relationship between species densities. Lions pose a threat to the survival of individual leopards, but they exerted no tractable influence on leopard spatial or temporal dynamics. Furthermore, lions did not appear to suppress leopard populations, suggesting that intraguild competitors can coexist in the same areas without population decline. Aligned conservation strategies that promote functioning ecosystems, rather than target individual species, are therefore advised to achieve cost- and space-effective conservation.

Novel distribution pattern between coexisting sexual and obligate asexual variants of the true estuarine macroalga Ulva prolifera.

Where sexual and asexual forms coexist within a species, the asexuals are often found to be prevalent in marginal habitats. This asexual distribution pattern has received evolutionary attention linked to the paradox of sex. In many marine species, there is a distributional trend of asexual modes being more common in lower salinity waters regarded as the ecogeographic marginal, being explained by negative effects of low salinities on sexual reproductive success. However, the distribution pattern of estuarine species recently adapted to low salinity waters has remained unknown. The brackish macroalga Ulva prolifera being a major benthic component of estuarine ecosystems includes a sexual variant and obligate asexual variants by means of motile spores. We examined the sexual–asexual distribution pattern of this alga along a salinity gradient in river estuaries. Surprisingly, opposite to the distributional trend of marine organisms, the results clearly showed the persistent predominance of sexuals in the lower salinity reaches than the asexuals. In addition, a frequent alternating of dioecious gametophytes and sporophytes in the sexual population was observed, suggesting the sexual reproductive process would be robustly performed in the low salinity waters. Considering U. prolifera had evolved from the ancestral marine species to become a true estuarine species of which the core habitat is the low salinity reaches, in a broad sense its sexual–asexual distribution pattern would be involved in asexual marginal occupations of the species range previously reported in other organisms. Based on the frozen niche variation model, we can give a concise explanation for the evolutionary process of this pattern; multiple asexuals with frozen genotypic variation had arisen from sexual ancestors undergoing low salinity adaptation and share the estuarine habitat with the sexuals at present.

The early Gravettian in a marginal area: New evidence from SW Poland

Previous studies on the Gravettian in Central Europe did not pay much attention to the issue of the marginal areas' occupation, because the main research interest was placed on analysis of remains from the area of classic refugia, the middle Danube valley or southern Moravia. Consequently, little is known about the mechanisms associated with occupation of areas located to the north of the Carpathians and the Sudetes, both in terms of chronology as well as system of mobility. The results of excavations at the open-air site in Henryków (SW Poland), presented in this paper, indicate that attempts of exploitation of upland territories located to the north of the mountain chains, started very early, i.e. in the so-called Early Gravettian period. This is indicated by radiocarbon dating of charcoal samples (28.5–31.5 ka BP) from the site. These dates were confirmed by dating of mineral deposits using the OSL method (ca. 29 ka). Based on geoarchaeological studies, the period of human stay at the Henryków site plausibly associated with development of the soil complex of the Komorniki (L1S1, Stillfried B/Lohner Boden type). Archaeological data indicate that the stay was linked with hunting practices. The features of the Henryków site, typical for marginal occupation, suggest that during the visit tool kits were reconstructed, stocks were replenished and fire was used. The dataset suggests that traces from Henryków should be treated as a result of pioneering expeditions. This mobility probably never had a more stable character, as in the later period of the Gravettian complex development.

Magdalenian societies in the Massif Central (France): Paleohistorical perspectives on the long-term (16.5–11.5 ka BP)

The notion of rupture dominates reflections on the prehistoric occupation of the Massif Central (France). From this perspective, the recent Upper Palaeolithic is interpreted through a prism of migrations or climatic determinism. All studies confirm a marginal occupation of this territory during the LGM and at the beginning of the Late Glacial. More than a historiographical balance, this article reviews the definition of early Magdalenian stages in the Massif Central and attempts to place them in an evolutionary process.This approach leads to the proposal of new diagnostic elements for chrono-cultural determination. Not only is the presence or absence of some typical tool types used, but an attempt is made to recognize whole (or parts of) coherent lithic systems. The aim of this paper is to illustrate this methodology through well-documented examples: data from the sequence of the Abri Durif in Enval (Sol de la Grange and Fond de l'Abri, Vic-le-Comte, Puy-de-Dôme, France) clearly highlights the differences between two subphases. This paper presents the results of the first analyses of these lithic assemblages, focusing on microliths whose particular typo-technological characteristics are analyzed in detail (strong backed bladelets of the Sol de la Grange vs. bladelets with marginal right backing of the Fond de l'Abri).This distinction between two chronological and technological traditions is discussed, substantially changing the classical evolutionary schema between Magdalenian and Badegoulian in this region. Particular chrono-regional episodes can be identified in the huge Magdalenian “mosaic”. Based on radiocarbon data, a new subdivision in the Paleolithic sequence of the French Massif Central (Middle Magdalenian vs. Upper Magdalenian) is proposed, reflecting the emergence of a particular paleohistorical event. Dominated by a relative arrhythmic pattern, this transition seems to reflect a greater span of time, through the successive emergence and development of technical and symbolic attributes that may be considered as representative of cultural identity of Magdalenian societies.

A Marginal Occupation? The Medieval Laundress and her Work

Drawing upon a wide range of primary sources, this article argues that a study of the medieval laundress can illuminate wider social attitudes to hygiene as well as to low status women. Having considered the many types of laundry workers active in England and northern France between c.1300 and 1550, it examines the techniques they used, as well as the hazards encountered through exposure to difficult conditions. Such factors, along with the freedom of movement enjoyed by many laundresses, often harmed their collective reputation. That responses to those who dealt with the community's dirty clothing were highly ambivalent is reflected in contemporary writing about laundresses, and in the measures taken to regulate them. Finally, we turn to remuneration. The sporadic survival of financial evidence means that our knowledge of wage rates remains impressionistic. But some laundry workers were surprisingly well rewarded. This confirms the value placed, in elite households at least, upon the cleanliness of personal linen.

Adoption of convention on the elimination of all forms of discriminationagainst women (CEDAW) and women rights in Nigeria – a wild goose chase?

Life is getting better for most people. But you are still more likely to be better off if you are a man rather than a woman. Typically, our Constitution prohibits any form of gender discrimination. Interestingly, legislative activities since the Second Republic in Nigeria to the present day have not placed any direct obstacle or barrier on the development of women, the assertion of their rights and the realization of their goals, both common and individual. However the situation in reality is far from the position of the Constitution as women still struggle to keep their heads above the ‘waters of discrimination' in different areas of life and aspiration. Britain and some countries of Western Europe are virtually free from this discrimination, many thanks to the effect of the suffragatte movement of late 19th and early 20th centuries. According to 1991 Census Report, women make up 49.6% of the nation\'s population. Though these figures have changed with the Population census of 2006 which states that the males constitute 71.7 million which is 51.22% of the total population of about 140 million whilst the females are 68.3million which is about 48.78%. The percentage of women is just a little lesser than that of the 1991 census and they are responsible for the reproduction of the labour force and for producing over 70% of the nation\'s food supply. Majority of female workers are in lower cadre occupations. Those in professional and marginal occupations constitute only 18% of that grade of employment. Although the provisions of the Constitution stipulates that there should be no discrimination based on sex and there are other laws, which are supposed to protect women, these laws are poorly implemented and can be said not to adequately protect women's rights. Most Nigerian women are informal sector workers who predominate in micro enterprises with little or no access to credit, technology and other supports required to build up capital. In fact, Nigerian women experience violence throughout their life cycle like many of their sisters in African countries. It is the position of this paper therefore that all the expectations of women can be summarised as women empowerment and the creation of atmosphere for the enjoyment by women of equality of treatment in every facets of life. Thus the domestication of CEDAW will go a long way to make this realizable by providing an enabling environment. In essence ratification of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) without adoption or domestication is a ruse. African Journal for the Psychological Study of Social Issues Vol. 11 (1&2) 2008: pp. 92-104

Working to return to employment: the case of UK social science contract researchers

Contract researchers constitute a marginal occupational group within the UK higher education system, and they manifest a high degree of turnover, in terms of leaving employment and returning to it. This article, which is based on qualitative interviews, examines some of the informal work which social science contract researchers engage in as they attempt to return to employment within academia. First, by examining the vocabularies of motive held by researchers, the article depicts why individuals should make efforts to return to such a marginal occupation. Second, the article then depicts the various kinds of informal work which researchers engage in so as to raise their employment chances. These different kinds of work are portrayed at an interactional level and at the level of individual identity.

Roles of Urbanised Negev Bedouin Women within Their Households

This article is part of an ongoing project in which Negev Bedouin households are being studied in the town of Tel Sheva. In particular, it describes the role of women in managing mainly penned livestock for milk and milk products, the production of which could evolve into a viable home industry. Background Nomadic pastoralism in the Negev' dates to the beginning of the Neolithic period (Ginguld et al. 1997: 569-71). Traditionally, Negev Bedouin depended on nomadic pastoralism for their lifestyle and livelihood. Sheep, goats and camels provided them with milk and milk products, wool and hair for weaving carpets and tents, and animals for traditional slaughter. At about 1900, the then ruling Ottomans established an administrative centre in Beer Sheva and stabilised the boundaries of tribal areas which were a source of continual intertribal conflicts. These boundaries were maintained by the British mandate, which replaced the Ottoman rule in 1917. At the end of the mandate in 1948, there were some 60,000 Bedouin (Marx 1967: 10). These Bedouin practised pastoralism ranging from semi-nomadic transhumance to sedentary agropastoralism (Meir 1984: 251, Ginguld et al. 1997: 567-73). With the declaration of the State of Israel in 1948 and its subsequent conquest of the Negev from Egypt, many Bedouin fled to Jordan and Egypt (Sinai and the Gaza strip). The approximately 12,000 remaining Bedouin were subjected to military rule and were translocated to a closed region in the northeastern Negev called the Siag. (2) Nomadic pastoralism and even population movement were severely restricted. A form of imposed sedentarisation began with the random appearance of Bedouin 'spontaneous' settlements composed of soft structured dwellings such as tents and huts of tin and wood. These hamlets appeared as unplanned and widely dispersed settlements without either legal title or any infrastructure or communal services. Subsequently, these hamlets led to land use and ownership conflicts with Israel's military and other government authorities. Lands without clear legal title to ownership had been declared 'State Lands' to be administered by an Israel Land Authority and, in the case of the Bedouin, its regulations were enforced by military governership. The Bedouin were able to claim squatter-rights based on Israel's land laws that had originated in Ottoman times and that were carried over from the British mandate. To counteract these claims, the government, in 1960, initiated a policy to settle the Bedouin into towns; ostensibly to integrate them into the national civilian and economic systems and to provide them with public services (Shmueli 1980: 258-64, Abu-Saad 1996: 527-29). By 1997, when the Bedouin population was 104,000, about 64,000 were settled in seven urban municipalities (Statistical Yearbook of the Negev Bedouin 1999). Today there about 120,000 Bedouin in the Negev with approximately 60 per cent being urbanised. For the Bedouin remaining in hamlets, pastoralism has become a marginal occupation in that only about 10,000 people, or about 1000 families, derive their main source of income from animals. Grazing areas available to them are severely limited and cannot support annual feed requirements (Abu-Rabia 1994: 9-17). In addition, due to Israel's compulsory education law, the traditional labour force, mainly unmarried daughters, has been significantly reduced and, consequently, hired shepherds are often employed. Few families milk their animals on a large scale because of labour shortage, but do milk a small number for home use (Degen et al. 2000: 135, Degen et al. 2001: 23). Transition to Urban Living The transition to urban living has drastically changed the lifestyle and economy of the Negev Bedouin (Meir 1997). Most men no longer raise livestock actively but instead have entered the wage labour market (Abu-Rabia 2000: 84-86, Jakubowska 2000: 98-101). They are employed mainly in non-skilled blue-collar jobs in or near Negev cities, in particular Beer Sheva. …

Deviance and marginal occupations: the case of taxi drivers

The taxi industry provides a strategic site to explore workplace deviance in low supervision, low status, occupational settings. Despite this theoretical opportunity and the objective importance of the taxi industry worldwide, very little is known about deviance among taxi drivers. Making use of interview data, this exploratory study maps out forms of workplace deviance and the explanations given for them by a sample of male taxi drivers. Major illegal activities reported included speeding, driving unsafe vehicles, taking drugs, and fraud. Theories pertaining to worker alienation, stress management, victim precipitation, and social control were relevant to the rationalizations some of the drivers provided to account for their illegal behaviors. We conclude that the occupational culture of taxi drivers and the structure of the taxi industry facilitate the forms of deviance reported here.

Approximation Analysis of Open Acyclic Exponential Queueing Networks with Blocking

An arbitrary configuration of an open queueing network with exponential service times and finite buffers is analyzed. We offer an iterative procedure for approximating the marginal occupancy probabilities for each queue of the system. The method decomposes the queueing network into individual queues and analyzes each in isolation using information from only its nearest neighbors. Based upon the SIMP approximation previously used for tandem queues, it replaces each server's service time with a clearance time, which includes blocking, and each server's arrival rate by an equivalent acceptance rate. The procedure is easy to implement and requires modest memory and computer time. Extensive numerical experiments, performed for various topologies, yield accurate results compared with those obtained by exact or simulation methods.

The Newmarket Racing Lad: Tradition and Change in a Marginal Occupation

This paper describes the work of a widely seen but little known occupation, the racing lad. It relates some changes which have taken place in the organisation of work and the subjective responses to these of a significant minority of the occupation in the locality studied. Such changes as are apparent are accounted for in terms of developments in the local labour market which have served to erode the traditionalist framework within which work has been organised. At root, the core activity is seen to depend on some particularly intangible qualities which working class youngsters have typically brought to this form of work.

Jobs for the Girls: Family Ideology and the Employment of Women in Education

While it is apparent that teaching is, and has been since the development of mass schooling, a feminized occupation, it has never been a profession in which women have had equal representation or dominance at administrative level. The argument developed in this paper is that women's positions in the teaching profession are intimately related to their familial roles as articulated by the ideology of the family. This has a series of implications, but the paramount which is focused on here is that of control. First, the maintenance of capitalist social relations through the socialization, control, and categorization of the young in schools is a legitimate extension of the ideological perceptions for women's familial role. Second, teaching is a marginal occupation, in that it is located in the middle sectors of capitalist formations (White, 1983a p. 45). The presence of large numbers of women and the accompanying ideology of the family segment the occupation and reduce its potential for collective mobilization. The growth of teaching as an occupation may therefore be seen as an example of the intersection of capitalism and patriarchy.