Marek's Disease Vaccine Viruses Research Articles

Molecular evaluation of responses to vaccination and challenge by Marek's disease viruses

A real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction was utilized to study the in vivo replication of Marek's disease vaccine viruses and of virulent oncogenic strains. In the first of four experiments, the growth of the herpes virus of turkeys (HVT) vaccine was detectable in various organs of infected chicken embryos, with the highest viral loads being present in the spleen. No evidence was obtained for replication of serotype-1 Marek's disease viruses in embryos. In the second experiment, viral loads were measured in several organs of chickens after administration of the Rispens and HVT vaccines immediately after hatching. Lowest levels were noted for the Rispens strain after 1 to 8 weeks. By contrast, HVT vaccine grew well in all tested organs, with the highest loads being present in the spleen. Highest loads were observed in unvaccinated birds after challenge with the highly virulent strain MPF57 at day 8, especially in lymphoid organs. A positive relationship was observed between viral load and clinical signs, including tumour formation. In a third study, viral loads were measured in the organs of chickens administered the Rispens vaccine on the day of hatch and challenged at day 8 with MPF57. High levels of clinical protection were afforded against MPF57 by the Rispens vaccine but, in confirmation of earlier findings, sterilizing immunity was not induced. In a fourth study, two experiments were conducted—in which viral loads were measured after challenge of chickens vaccinated with HVT in ovo or at day 1 after hatching. Similar protection was achieved in birds vaccinated in ovo on embryonic days 11 and 17, although protection was slightly, but not significantly, lower than for birds vaccinated at day 1.

Vaccinal control of Marek's disease: Current challenges, and future strategies to maximize protection

Marek's disease is an economically important lymphoid neoplasm of chickens, caused by oncogenic strains of Marek's disease herpesvirus. The disease can be successfully controlled by vaccination with attenuated or non-pathogenic MDV strains. However, vaccine failures do occur as field strains continue to evolve towards pathotypes of greater virulence, and this evolution is likely to be driven by the vaccines themselves. Two general strategies can be considered to improve protection by vaccination. Firstly by the development of novel vaccines, and secondly by maximizing the potential of existing vaccines. This second goal requires investigation of optimal timing and vaccine delivery route, and optimal vaccination regimes for different breeds of chick. Accurate quantitation of Marek's disease vaccine virus in vaccinated chicks will contribute significantly to our understanding of vaccinal protection. We recently developed a real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay for quantitation of CVI988 vaccine virus in the feather tips, a rich source of viral DNA which can easily be sampled in a non-invasive manner. This PCR test is now used commercially to confirm the successful vaccination of chicks. We have also used the PCR to examine various aspects of vaccination in experimental chicks and commercial chicks with a view to determining how vaccine level in feathers correlates with protection against challenge, and for identifying optimal timing and vaccine delivery route, and optimal vaccination regimes for different breeds of chick. In this article we review some aspects of the current vaccinal control of Marek's disease, before highlighting some of the problems associated with current vaccines and vaccination strategies, and the challenges for the future. We go on to discuss the development and use of our real-time PCR feather test, its current applications and potential opportunities in Marek's disease vaccine research.

Replication kinetics of Marek's disease vaccine virus in feathers and lymphoid tissues using PCR and virus isolation

CVI988 (Rispens), an avirulent strain of Marek's disease virus, is the most widely used vaccine against Marek's disease. The kinetics of replication of CVI988 was examined in tissues of chickens vaccinated at either 1 day or 14 days of age and sampled regularly up to 28 days post-vaccination. Age at vaccination had no significant effect on the kinetics of CVI988 virus replication. During the cytolytic phase of infection (1-7 days), virus levels peaked in the spleen, bursa and thymus with very close correlation among these organs. Virus load in peripheral blood lagged behind and did not reach high levels. Significant numbers of virus genomes were detected in the feather tips only after 7 days, but subsequently rose to levels almost 10(3)-fold greater than in the other tissues. This is the first accurate quantitative data for kinetics of CVI988 replication in a variety of tissues. There was good correlation between data from virus isolation and PCR, with real-time PCR being the preferred method for rapid, accurate and sensitive quantification of virus. Feathers were ideal for non-invasive sampling to detect and measure CVI988 in live chickens and, from 10 days onwards, virus load in feather tips was predictive of virus load in lymphoid tissues where immune responses will occur. The potential for real-time PCR analysis of feather samples for further investigation of the mechanism of vaccinal protection, and to assist optimization of vaccination regimes, is discussed.

Characterization of four very virulent Argentinian strains of Marek's disease virus and the influence of one of those isolates on synergism between Marek's disease vaccine viruses

Isolates of Marek's disease virus (MDV) from vaccinated flocks in Argentina were characterized as very virulent (vv) and very virulent plus (vv+) strains. Experimental infection with these viruses caused a high incidence of Marek's disease in both resistant N-2a line and susceptible P-2a line birds. Vaccine viruses from each of the three Marek's disease viral serotypes were evaluated alone and in various combinations for protection against challenge with a vvMDV called NULP-1. Vaccination of P-2a birds with HVT did not protect satisfactorily against any of the vv and vv+MDV strains isolated. However, CVI988/Rispens vaccine alone or combined with serotype 2 and/or serotype 3 vaccine strains enhanced protection significantly against NULP-1. Serotype 2 plus serotype 3 vaccines also provided significant protection when challenged with this strain. This is one the first reports of the occurrence of vvMDV and vv+MDV in Argentina and Latin America. It is also a preliminary evaluation of the synergistic protective effect of different vaccine viruses with local MDV strains. However, further studies are needed to evaluate the real role of these and other Marek's disease isolates in 'vaccination failures' and the influence of serotype and virus strain on synergism between Marek's disease vaccine viruses.

Influence of serotype and virus strain on synergism between Marek's disease vaccine viruses

The enhanced protective effect (synergism) when certain Marek's disease (MD) vaccine viruses are combined has been widely used in the development of improved vaccines, but the mechanism is poorly understood. To better characterize the basis for synergism among MD vaccine viruses, three vaccine viruses from each of the three MD viral serotypes were evaluated alone and in various combinations for protection against early challenge with very virulent MD viruses in four replicate trials. Synergism seemed to be influenced by viral serotype because significant enhancement occurred frequently between viruses of serotypes 2 and 3 (five of nine bivalent vaccines positive), but rarely between viruses of serotypes 1 and 3 (one of nine bivalent vaccines positive) and 1 and 2 (one of nine bivalent vaccines positive), and was not detectable between viruses of the same serotype (none of nine bivalent vaccines positive). With some exceptions, the degree of synergism tended to vary inversely with the mean protective efficacy of the most protective component virus. Little effect of virus dose, virus dose ratio or type and route of viral challenge was noted. The combination of strains 281MI/1 (serotype 2) and WTHV-1/1 (serotype 3), both poorly protective as monovalent vaccines, consistently demonstrated high levels of synergism (over 300%) in antibody-positive chickens challenged 5 days post-vaccination with Md5 virus. This protocol may be a useful model system for further studies on mechanisms of synergism. However, mixtures that optimize synergism are not necessarily as protective as commercial vaccines.

New Serotype 2 and Attenuated Serotype 1 Marek's Disease Vaccine Viruses: Selected Biological and Molecular Characteristics

Two new Marek's disease vaccine viruses, Md11/75C/R2 (serotype 1) and 301B/1 (serotype 2), were evaluated in chickens with maternal antibodies (ab+) or without maternal antibodies (ab-). Strain Md11/75C/R2 was mildly pathogenic in ab--chickens, but this pathogenicity was markedly reduced in ab+ chickens. Md11/75C/R2 spread less by contact and replicated better, both in vivo and in vitro, than CVI988/C, another serotype 1 vaccine virus. Strain 301B/1 was similar to SB-1, another serotype 2 vaccine virus: both were nonpathogenic for ab--chickens, spread readily by contact, and replicated well in vivo. In vitro, 301B/1 grew more rapidly and produced larger plaques than SB-1. Notable characteristics of strain CVI988/C included absence of pathogenicity, poor replicative ability, and the absence of one epitope detected by a common serotype-1-specific monoclonal antibody. All four viruses could be distinguished from each other by restriction enzyme analysis of viral DNA. We conclude that Md11/75C/R2, although exceptionally protective, may require further attenuation. On the other hand, 301B/1, which in other studies induced higher levels of protection than SB-1, is nonpathogenic and may be considered for use as a commercial vaccine.

New Serotype 2 and Attenuated Serotype 1 Marek's Disease Vaccine Viruses: Comparative Efficacy

Attempts were made, through selection of optimum viral strains, to develop improved vaccines against Marek's disease (MD). Seven attenuated serotype 1 strains and 22 avirulent serotype 2 strains, both alone and in combination with the FC126 strain of serotype 3, were screened for protective efficacy against challenge with virulent and very virulent MD viral strains. The three viruses selected as most promising were evaluated alone and in various combinations and compared with commercially available vaccines, including FC126, bivalent (FC126 + SB-1), and CV1988/C, in 12 separate assays. Two of these new viruses--301B/1 (serotype 2) and Md11/75C/R2 (serotype 1)--were exceptionally protective compared with prototype vaccine strains. Four new monovalent and polyvalent vaccines based on these two isolates protected chickens better than FC126 alone or CV1988/C alone. Three of these new vaccines provided better protection than the bivalent (FC126 + SB-1) vaccine. Protective synergism was noted commonly between viruses of serotypes 2 and 3 but only sporadically between serotypes 1 and 2 or between serotypes 1 and 3. Strain CVI988/C was protective but was no better than FC126 alone, and it was less effective than bivalent (FC126 + SB-1) vaccine, even when used as a bivalent vaccine with FC126 or SB-1.

The Prevention of Marek's Disease in Holland by Vaccination with Cell-Associated Vaccines—CV1988 (DUTCH) and FC126 (USA) Results of comparative Field Trials and Routine Vaccinations of Flocks between 1970–1980

Large scale field trials in Holland between 1970 and 1973, in which the efficacy of two cell-associated Marek's disease vaccine viruses, CVI988 (Holland) and FC126 (U.S.A.), were tested comparative...

Influence of Some Physical Factors on Survival of Marek's Disease Vaccine Virus

Cell-associated Marek's disease (MD) vaccine was suspended at dilutions normally used for vaccination in seven commercially available diluents and in tryptose phosphate broth. The stability of diluted vaccines was determined by assay in cell cultures subjected to 0 to 37 C for 0 to 90 minutes. Optimum holding temperatures for MD vaccine virus survival varied with the specific diluents employed. Some diluents afforded greatest survival when dilution was at 0 C and held at 0 C, while others performed best when dilution was at 25 C followed by cooling and holding at 0 C. Diluents which allowed greatest survival when tested at 37 C also performed well under other temperature regimes. Spectinomycin dihydrochloride pentahydrate and various buffering compounds were added to commercial diluents used for diluting MD vaccine. Additives producing osmolality of 745 mOsm/kg and higher markedly reduced vaccine virus survival. The adverse effects of high osmotic pressure were accentuated by extended holding time, elevated incubation temperature, and physical manipulations including mechanical mixing or expressing through a syringe and needle. Satisfactory MD vaccine virus survival was afforded by a commercial diluent especially formulated to accommodate the pH osmolality changes produced by adding spectinomycin dihydrochloride pentahydrate.