Mapungubwe Hill Research Articles

Exploitation of sheep (Ovis aries) and goats (Capra hircus) by Iron Age farmers in southern Africa

Sheep and goats have been kept by Bantu-speaking farmers since their arrival during the Early Iron Age in southern Africa. Published samples dating from the Early, Middle and Late Iron Ages are used in this paper to investigate the exploitation of these two domestic animals. A Caprine Index is introduced to measure the ratio of sheep and goats in samples. In almost all cases, samples from the entire Iron Age are dominated by sheep, although the representation of goats increases slightly towards the Middle and Late Iron Age. Three exceptions to the pattern exist in the region, namely Mapungubwe Hill (Middle Iron Age), Nyanga and Hill X (Late Iron Age). At Mapungubwe Hill, the possibility exist that the dominance of goats over sheep is a factor of identification limitations when the original study was conducted in the late 1970s. However, a study is currently underway to re-analyse the fauna from this site. By the middle of the 20th century, goats are more common than sheep under Bantu-speaking farmers in South Africa, a pattern that may be attributed to social, economic, political and/or environmental changes.

Frobenius Discovered Before Crossing Limpopo Ruins, Ancient Fortificated Settlements, Beautiful Pottery Mountains Stop

ABSTRACTThe “discovery” by the scientific community of the iconic archaeological site of Mapungubwe Hill (thirteenth century AD, South Africa) is said to have taken place in 1933. Early that year, the son of a local farmer, having visited the site for the first time in the final hours of 1932, brought its existence to the attention of Leo Fouché, professor of history at the University of Pretoria. There were, however, indications of an earlier visit by a group of German ethnographers who travelled across southern Africa over a period of some 20 months between 1928 and 1930, led by Leo Frobenius. I present the archive that was produced by the Frobenius expedition in 1928 of the place they called “Manopie” (“Ruinenhügel von Manopie”, “Manopietöpferei”), reconfigured by means of the method of repeat photography. The article also makes a case for the creative possibilities of revisiting the archive, and suggests that the archive is formed through encounters with other ways of being the world, rather than simply being a product of Western epistemologies.

Zimbabwe culture before Mapungubwe: new evidence from Mapela Hill, South-Western Zimbabwe.

Across the globe, the emergence of complex societies excites intense academic debate in archaeology and allied disciplines. Not surprisingly, in southern Africa the traditional assumption that the evolution of socio-political complexity began with ideological transformations from K2 to Mapungubwe between CE1200 and 1220 is clouded in controversy. It is believed that the K2−Mapungubwe transitions crystallised class distinction and sacred leadership, thought to be the key elements of the Zimbabwe culture on Mapungubwe Hill long before they emerged anywhere else. From Mapungubwe (CE1220–1290), the Zimbabwe culture was expressed at Great Zimbabwe (CE1300–1450) and eventually Khami (CE1450–1820). However, new fieldwork at Mapela Hill, when coupled with a Bayesian chronology, offers tremendous fresh insights which refute this orthodoxy. Firstly, Mapela possesses enormous prestige stone-walled terraces whose initial construction date from the 11th century CE, almost two hundred years earlier than Mapungubwe. Secondly, the basal levels of the Mapela terraces and hilltop contain élite solid dhaka (adobe) floors associated with K2 pottery and glass beads. Thirdly, with a hilltop and flat area occupation since the 11th century CE, Mapela exhibits evidence of class distinction and sacred leadership earlier than K2 and Mapungubwe, the supposed propagators of the Zimbabwe culture. Fourthly, Mapungubwe material culture only appeared later in the Mapela sequence and therefore post-dates the earliest appearance of stone walling and dhaka floors at the site. Since stone walls, dhaka floors and class distinction are the essence of the Zimbabwe culture, their earlier appearance at Mapela suggests that Mapungubwe can no longer be regarded as the sole cradle of the Zimbabwe culture. This demands not just fresh ways of accounting for the rise of socio-political complexity in southern Africa, but also significant adjustments to existing models.

The conservation of the Mapungubwe gold collection, South Africa

Abstract This article documents the conservation of the Iron Age gold collection, under the curatorship of the University of Pretoria from the archaeological site of Mapungubwe Hill in the Limpopo Province of South Africa. The primary objective was the stabilization of a national archaeological museum collection, involving active treatment to halt further deterioration, re-uniting dissociated fragments and improving the collection for further handling and future research. Conservation on the gold collection spanned a period of three years (and over 6000 hours of benchwork), allowed for the reversal of post-excavation damage, major sorting, stabilization, elucidation of previously obscure forms and overall improvement of the gold collection for sustainable curation. This conservation programme further provided the opportunity to set in motion best practices for archaeological objects conservation in South Africa and brought a permanent museum collection up to international standards.

Mapungubwe: Interpretation of the Gold Content of the Original Gold Burial M1, A620

This paper is an attempt to give a credible interpretation of the many gold foil fragments found in a single grave on the summit of Mapungubwe Hill in January 1933. While carefully studying the many fragments of gold foil and the restored rhino, bovine and feline from the Mapungubwe collection at the University of Pretoria, the author noticed that the same type of images, symbols and shapes are found on the rim and base of an old divining bowl at present at Groote Schuur in Cape Town, as well as on more recent BaVenda divining bowls. It was also apparent that the Mapungubwe gold rhino, bovine and feline are all relatively of the same size, that they all have curved bodies and that all have flared feet with small tack holes at their bases, indicating that they were likely once attached to a flat round wooden surface. Along with the remains of a crocodile once in Dr Marc Smalle’s collection in Polokwane, all these figurines came from a single grave on Mapungubwe Hill, referred to as the Original Gold Burial M1, A620. It is argued that all the fragments were once attached to a single object, namely an elaborately carved wooden divining bowl which had disintegrated over time. While the complete collection of gold foil fragments recovered in the 1930s may have allowed a relatively accurate reconstruction of the appearance of the vessel which they originally covered, many of these are missing and therefore this is unfortunately not possible. Enough fragments remain, however, to give a credible partial reconstruction of the bowl based on careful iconographic observation.

Evidence for indigenous strip-drawing in production of wire at Mapungubwe Hill (1220–1290 AD): towards an interdisciplinary approach

Several cupreous conical tubes with unclear function are among some of the finds in the collections held at the University of Pretoria which were unearthed by archaeologists on Mapungubwe Hill. Most of these are poorly provenanced, particularly those connected with the activities of Guy Gardner (1935–1940) regarding the waste in northern dump. However, a redetermination of the context following the excavations of the 1970s suggests the funnels date to the period of the rise and development of Mapungubwe as a town and centre of a powerful state. The results from neutron tomography, stereomicroscope and SEM–EDS indicate that the tubes were most probably used in iron strip-drawing to produce wire.

Raman classification of glass beads excavated on Mapungubwe hill and K2, two archaeological sites in South Africa

About 200 coloured glass beads (red, yellow, green, blue, white, black, pink, plum) excavated on Mapungubwe hill and at K2, archaeological sites in the Limpopo valley South Africa, were studied with Raman scattering. This is also the most southern site in Africa where evidence for glass reworking has been found. The glass matrix of the beads was classified according to its Raman signature into three main subgroups and corroded glass could also be identified. At least seven different chromophores or pigments (lazurite, lead tin yellow type II, Ca/Pb arsenate, chromate, calcium antimonate, Fe–S ‘amber’ and a spinel) were identified. Many of the pigments were manufactured after the 13th century, confirming the presence of modern beads in the archaeological record. This calls for further research to find a way to reconcile the carbon dating of the hill, which currently gives the last occupation date on the hill as 1290 AD with the physical evidence of the modern beads excavated on the hill. The results are discussed in terms of the glass production origin of the beads (Europe, Mediterranean area, India, China). Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

A Raman spectroscopic study of glass trade beads excavated at Mapungubwe hill and K2, two archaeological sites in southern Africa, raises questions about the last occupation date of the hill

Thousands of glass trade beads were excavated over a 75 year period on Mapungubwe Hill and at K2, two archaeological sites in the Limpopo valley, South Africa. An assemblage of 175 beads that appeared to be different in shape, size and colour (red, yellow, green, blue, white, black, pink, plum) was studied with Raman scattering. At least seven different chromophores or pigments (lazurite, lead tin yellow type II, Ca/Pb arsenate, chromate, calcium antimonate, Fe–S “amber” and a spinel) have been identified. Pigment identification allows the recognition of specific productions and indicated that many of the pigments colouring the beads excavated on Mapungubwe hill were manufactured after the 13th century, confirming the presence of modern beads in the archaeological record, some dating from the 19th century. This date is in agreement with the last occupation date for the hill suggested by the earlier excavators and raises questions about the revision of this date to 1290 AD by archaeologists in the 1970’s.

Dating the Mapungubwe Hill Gold

This paper presents direct dating evidence for the manufacture of some of the gold artefacts from the Iron Age archaeological site of Mapungubwe Hill (South Africa). The results confirm that the artefacts are contemporaneous with the occupation of the site and are the product of a mature indigenous metalworking tradition. The Mapungubwe Hill gold artefacts were manufactured at a time when a substantial reorganisation of society led to the separation of royals and commoners and a change in the role of cattle as a form of wealth. These changes are clearly manifest in the use of gold. Whereas gold had previously been traded with the East coast, it became symbolic of power, wealth and status at Mapungubwe Hill.

A Raman spectroscopic study of the Mapungubwe oblates: glass trade beads excavated at an Iron Age archaeological site in South Africa

AbstractOblate seed beads (2–4 mm) excavated on Mapungubwe hill, an Iron Age site in South Africa, were analysed with Raman microscopy and supportive techniques to determine the glass technology and pigments used to produce the beads. The Raman spectra and XRF analysis of the beads classify the glass as a typical soda/lime/potash glass similar to Islamic glass from the 8th century (Ommayad), but with higher levels of aluminium, iron and magnesium. The turquoise, bright green, bright yellow and orange colours were obtained by utilizing a combination of cassiterite (SnO2) and lead tin yellow type II (PbSn1−xSixO3). Doping with cobalt and manganese produced dark blue and plum‐coloured beads. The Fe‐S chromophore was detected through its resonance‐enhanced spectrum in the black beads. Corrosion of the black beads was investigated and an organic phase detected on the beads, which might have influenced the corrosion process. This detailed profile of the glass technology used to produce the Mapungubwe oblates might eventually help to determine their provenance. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Re‐dating of Chinese celadon shards excavated on Mapungubwe Hill, a 13th century Iron Age site in South Africa, using Raman spectroscopy, XRF and XRD

AbstractChinese celadon shards of the Longquan type, believed to date from the Southern Song dynasty (1127–1279 AD), were excavated in 1934 on Mapungubwe Hill, a 13th century Iron Age site in the Limpopo valley, South Africa. We studied the shards with Raman spectroscopy, x‐ray fluorescence (XRF) spectroscopy and x‐ray diffraction (XRD). The Raman polymerization index (Ip), calculated from the spectra of the glaze of the shards, indicated a higher firing temperature than expected for the relatively calcium‐rich Longquan glazes of the Southern Song dynasty. XRF analysis of the glaze and XRD measurements of the bulk of the shards supported this view and date the shards to possibly the Yuan (1279–1368 AD) or even early Ming (1368–1644 AD) dynasties. These results have an impact on the chronology of the history of the region and therefore call for further research of a comparative nature of other Chinese celadon shards excavated on archaeological sites in Africa, in addition to additional carbon dates of Mapungubwe hill. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Metal Assemblages from Greefswald Areas K2, Mapungubwe Hill and Mapungubwe Southern Terrace

Metal Assemblages from Greefswald Areas K2, Mapungubwe Hill and Mapungubwe Southern Terrace

K2 and Mapungubwe

Since 1933, four phases of archaeological investigation at K2 and Mapungubwe in the Limpopo River Valley have established that these sites represent a sequence of human settlement, subsistence farming and state development in this region between AD 1000 and AD 1300. The size, com? plexity and cultural content of the sites reflect the royal status ofthe inhabitants and the development of indigenous social structures and trade links via the east coast of Africa. About the middle of the lst millennium AD, an Early Iron Age community had settled on Mapungubwe and left evidence of their pottery there. During the 11th and 12th centuries AD, a royal African community ruled over this farming complex from their capital at K2 in a picturesque valley nearby. During the 12th and 13th centuries, Mapungubwe Hill became a royal African metropolis and the hub of social development, subsistence farming and trade in the area. The apparent decline of Mapungubwe towards the end ofthe 13 th century seems to be contempo? rary? with Period III at Great Zimbabwe. Various smaller sites in the neighbourhood, contemporary with K2 and Mapungubwe, are related subordinate settlements such as cattle outposts and agricultural villages. Several small settlement sites postdating Mapungubwe indicate that farming communities continued to inhabit the area between AD 1300 and AD 1800. Current research shows that the kingdoms of K2 and Mapungubwe contributed to the current indigenous knowledge systems of the local commu? nities in the region. *Received December 1999, revised October 2000