Map Drawing Task Research Articles

No evidence for chunking in spatial memory of route experience.

Spatial memory is important for supporting the successful completion of everyday activities and is a particularly vulnerable domain in late life. Grouping items together in memory, or chunking, can improve spatial memory performance. In memory for desktop scale spaces and well-learned large-scale environments, error patterns suggest that information is chunked in memory. However, the chunking mechanisms involved in learning new large-scale, navigable environments are poorly understood. In five experiments, two of which included young and older adult samples, participants watched movies depicting routes through building-sized environments while attempting to remember the locations of cued objects. We tested memory for the cued objects with virtual pointing, distance estimation, and map drawing tasks after participants viewed each route. Patterns of error failed to show consistent evidence of chunking in spatial memory across all experiments. One possibility is that chunking in spatial memory relies on visual perceptual grouping mechanisms that are not in play during encoding of large-scale spaces encountered through extended route experiences that do not afford concurrent viewing of target locations. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Surveying Oklahoma Perceptual Dialectology Map Labels

This study investigates Oklahomans’ attitudes towards English language varieties in their own state. It combines the methods of perceptual dialectology, by looking at the labels that respondents used in a typical map-drawing task, with those of a content-analysis on post-task interviews. Examination of the map-drawing data told us that there were three distinct areas in this group of respondents’ mental maps, namely the “southeast” part, the “western” part, and the “southern” part of Oklahoma. By using content analysis on the immediate follow-up map drawing discussion, the three areas in respondents’ mental maps and their dialectological profile were reconstructed. The current study also looked into how such common dialectological labels as “southern”, “country”, “drawl” and “twang”, were used to describe the English variation in Oklahoma by the target group of respondents.

Evaluating individual cartographic skills using mental sketches

ABSTRACT The paper deals with a problem of assessing of individual progress of students’ cartographic skills. For teacher it is important to evaluate it not only in a form of tests and semester works, but also in a less formal, score-oriented manner. The author uses mental sketches to observe results of a teaching process. The research is based on previously described author’s method with modification to trace individual, anonymized changes. The identical cartographic survey (map drawing task) was conducted and repeated among students five times during the entire study cycle. Results were analyzed with cartographic methodology in mind, to assess the skills of students, their progress and used methods of presentation. Students’ approach to using point, line and areal features were tested as well as design abilities in case of symbols. Information on progress and skills were used not only to observe statistical changes. The outcomes were applied in a process of evaluating the teaching effectiveness. The survey was conducted in a relation to real courses, hence the results are of great value in increasing the quality of studies and teaching methods. Some of ideas have already been introduced in cartography and GIS classes taught by the author.

Navigation ability in young, middle-aged and older adults: Different domains of knowledge and their relationship with visuospatial factors

Spatial navigation skills used in daily life are liable to decline with aging. They rely on a knowledge of landmarks, their locations (from egocentric and allocentric perspectives) and paths (learned in route and survey modes). This study investigated this knowledge in young, middle-aged and older people, also considering the role of individual visuospatial factors. Eighty-seven people in three age groups (20–30, 55–64, 65–75 years) were assessed on their visuospatial factors, and learned a path by walking in a real garden. Then their knowledge of landmarks (recognition task) and their positions (egocentric and allocentric pointing tasks), and the path (route repetition, order of landmarks, path finding and map drawing tasks) was tested. After controlling for sex and years of education, middle-aged and older adults performed similarly, and less well than young adults in allocentric pointing and map drawing tasks. Visuospatial working memory and sense of direction were the most influential individual factors, with specificity for each knowledge domain. In conclusion, the ability to use mental representations of environments learned from navigation relates to the domain of knowledge involved, age, and individual visuospatial factors.

Using virtual global landmark to improve incidental spatial learning

To reduce the decline of spatial cognitive skills caused by the increasing use of automated GPS navigation, the virtual global landmark (VGL) system is proposed to help people naturally improve their sense of direction. Designed to accompany a heads-up navigation system, VGL system constantly displays silhouette of global landmarks in the navigator’s vision as a notable frame of reference. This study exams how VGL system impacts incidental spatial learning, i.e., subconscious spatial knowledge acquisition. We asked 55 participants to explore a virtual environment and then draw a map of what they had explored while capturing electroencephalogram (EEG) signals and eye activity. The results suggest that, with the VGL system, participants paid more attention during exploration and performed significantly better at the map drawing task—a result that indicates substantially improved incidental spatial learning. This finding might kickstart a redesigning navigation aids, to teach users to learn a route rather than simply showing them the way.

Map Learning in Aging Individuals: The Role of Cognitive Functioning and Visuospatial Factors

Aging coincides with a decline in map learning ability, but it is unclear to what extent different aspects of the mental representation are susceptible. The present study aimed to investigate knowledge about landmarks, their positions and distances (categorical and distance relations, respectively) in relation to aging as well as cognitive functioning (measured with the Montreal Cognitive Assessment [MoCA]), visuospatial abilities, and self-reported wayfinding inclinations. Thirty young adults and 60 older adults (30 aged 63–74 and 30 aged 75–86) learned a map, freely recalled the landmarks and performed a map drawing task (considering the number of landmarks missing, position accuracy and distance accuracy). Before that, older participants were also assessed regarding their general cognitive functioning (MoCA) and a series of visuospatial measures. The results show age-related differences among adults in recalling landmarks and in both categorical and distance relations, with a worsening of performance of old-olds only in the former. Older adults’ MoCA score related to accuracy in the three measures, and an additional role of spatial anxiety was found for distance accuracy. Above and beyond the age-related decline, the quality of older people’s spatial mental representation is related to higher general cognitive level and lower spatial anxiety.

The role of visuo-spatial abilities in environment learning from maps and navigation over the adult lifespan.

Visuo-spatial abilities have an important role in environment learning. The aim of the present study was to explore whether these abilities relate to spatial recall after learning an environment from a map or a video, and irrespective of the learner's age (from youth to old age). The study involved 431 participants from 25 to 84years old, who were assessed for their visuo-spatial working memory, object-based mental rotation, and perspective-taking abilities. Then, they learned environments from a map and a video, and performed pointing, map drawing, and route repetition tasks after learning from each type of input. The resulting path models showed that age related to visuo-spatial abilities and (in some cases) to spatial accuracy, too. After accounting for age, visuo-spatial abilities also related to spatial recall performance, whatever the type of learning input, especially in pointing tasks and, to a lesser degree, in map drawing and route repetition tasks. Overall, the relationship between individual visuo-spatial abilities and environment learning relates to the learning input and the type of task used to assess recall. This relationship was found in a large and diverse sample of participants ranging from youth to old age.

Which way is the bookstore? A closer look at the judgments of relative directions task

ABSTRACTWe present a detailed analysis of a widely used assay in human spatial cognition, the judgments of relative direction (JRD) task. We conducted three experiments involving virtual navigation interspersed with the JRD task, and included confidence judgments and map drawing as additional metrics. We also present a technique for assessing the similarity of the cognitive representations underlying performance on the JRD and map-drawing tasks. Our results support the construct validity of the JRD task and its connection to allocentric representation. Additionally, we found that chance performance on the JRD task depends on the distribution of the angles of participants’ responses, rather than being constant and 90 degrees. Accordingly, we present a method for better determining chance performance.

Map Learning in Normal Aging: The Role of Individual Visuo-Spatial Abilities and Implications.

The present study analyzes the age-related differences in map learning between young and normally-aging young-old and old-old adults in relation to individual visuo-spatial factors to specify which aspects of spatial learning are susceptible to aging. Forty young, 40 young-old and 40 old-old participants performed a series of tasks to assess their visuo-spatial working memory (VSWM) and visuo-spatial (rotation) abilities, then they studied a map. To test their recall, they graphically reproduced the map in a freehand drawing, then performed a sketch map task (which involved placing a list of landmarks on a blank layout of the map) and a pointing task (adopting aligned and counter-aligned imaginary positions). The results showed that age-related differences depend on the type of recall task performed: in the pointing and freehand map-drawing tasks, the young-old and old-old performed worse than the young adults; but in the sketch map task, the young-old performed as well as the young adults and only the old-old's performance was worse than that of the other two age groups. Concerning the role of individual factors, VSWM and rotation abilities were found strongly involved in the pointing task (especially for counter-aligned pointing) and the freehand map-drawing task. Overall, these results suggest that different factors related to spatial (map) learning explain age-related differences in normal aging. The implications of the present results in normal and pathological aging, and for the purposes of clinical assessments and interventions, are discussed.

Educational Method for Developing Assessment Skills of Nursing Students

This study aimed to verify the effects of a new instructional method to structure knowledge. The research hypothesis was that “Structured knowledge improves assessment skills of students”. Fifty-five second-year undergraduate students volunteered to participate in this study. They were randomized into either a group that received instructional intervention (n = 19; intervention) or a group that did not (n = 36; non-intervention). A survey and instructional intervention comprised pre-tests, individual instructional intervention, participant self-studies and post-tests. The students attempted one pre- and one post-test task, each comprising concept map drawing and assessment of actual patients with diabetes. Participants who received educational intervention described concept maps regarding the pathophysiology and nursing of diseases, and we taught a learning strategy to understand relationships between concepts and the assumption of clinical assessment. The results of the concept map drawing task showed that post-test structural knowledge scores were significantly higher for the intervention, than the non-intervention group (p p p < 0.01). The educational intervention in this study seemed to augment the ability to identify nursing problems, although we did not teach assessment strategies. The intervention seemed to confer structured knowledge with explicit conditions for applicability. Structured knowledge with explicit conditions and learning how to use knowledge to assess patients before a clinical practicum seemed to augment assessment skills.

Not all is lost in older adults' route learning: The role of visuo-spatial abilities and type of task

This study explores the role of age and individual visuo-spatial skills in different types of task after route learning. Thirty-eight young adults (24–35 years old) and 37 older adults (64–75 years old) completed visuo-spatial working memory (VSWM) and rotation tasks. Then, after learning a route in a botanical garden, they performed environmental knowledge tasks. Older adults performed less well in route repetition, pointing, and map drawing tasks, but not for some demands within these tasks. In a shortcut task, older adults did just as well as young adults in choosing a shorter route to a landmark. After controlling for age, VSWM and rotation abilities predicted performance in the pointing task, only rotation abilities in the route repetition and map drawing tasks. Route learning accuracy in aging depends partly on the type of recall task used to test it, with a variable degree of involvement of individual VSWM and rotation abilities.

Older Adult Strategies for Community Wayfinding.

Community wayfinding becomes more challenging with age and decrements in functioning. Given the growth in numbers of older adults, we need to understand features that facilitate or inhibit wayfinding in outdoor settings to enhance mobility and community engagement. This exploratory study of 35 short- ( n = 14) and long-term ( n = 21) residents in an ethnically diverse neighborhood identified relevant wayfinding factors. Data collection included an interview, map-drawing task, and walk along a previously audited, prescribed route to identify key wayfinding strategies. Most participants sought information from other people as a primary method of route planning. Street signs and landmarks were overwhelming favorites as helpful wayfinding features. When asked to recall the route following the walk, only half of participants gave completely correct directions. Findings reinforce the importance of landmarks and legible, systematic, and consistently available signage, as well as trustworthy person-to-person information sources. Findings also underscore the need for wayfinding research in diverse environments.

Map learning in young and older adults: The influence of perceived stereotype threat

This study aimed to analyze whether social factors such as perceived stereotype threat can influence spatial recall in aging. Thirty-four young, 34 young-old and 34 old-old adults studied a map and then performed spatial recall tasks (pointing, a verification task and map drawing) and completed a questionnaire measuring their perceived stereotype threat concerning spatial skills declining with age. Results showed a worse spatial recall performance in both the older groups (young-old and old-old) than in the young adult group. In the map-drawing task, the age effect was also mediated by the perceived stereotype threat. Overall, these findings indicate that perceived stereotype threat mediates the relationship between age and map learning, depending on the type of spatial recall task used.

Route learning in Korsakoff's syndrome: Residual acquisition of spatial memory despite profound amnesia

Korsakoff's syndrome (KS) is characterized by explicit amnesia, but relatively spared implicit memory. The aim of this study was to assess to what extent KS patients can acquire spatial information while performing a spatial navigation task. Furthermore, we examined whether residual spatial acquisition in KS was based on automatic or effortful coding processes. Therefore, 20 KS patients and 20 matched healthy controls performed six tasks on spatial navigation after they navigated through a residential area. Ten participants per group were instructed to pay close attention (intentional condition), while 10 received mock instructions (incidental condition). KS patients showed hampered performance on a majority of tasks, yet their performance was superior to chance level on a route time and distance estimation tasks, a map drawing task and a route walking task. Performance was relatively spared on the route distance estimation task, but there were large variations between participants. Acquisition in KS was automatic rather than effortful, since no significant differences were obtained between the intentional and incidental condition on any task, whereas for the healthy controls, the intention to learn was beneficial for the map drawing task and the route walking task. The results of this study suggest that KS patients are still able to acquire spatial information during navigation on multiple domains despite the presence of the explicit amnesia. Residual acquisition is most likely based on automatic coding processes.

Mental representations derived from spatial descriptions: the influence of orientation specificity and visuospatial abilities

This study aimed to investigate the orientation dependence effect and the role of visuospatial abilities in mental representations derived from spatial descriptions. The analysis focused on how the orientation effect and the involvement of visuospatial abilities change when survey and route descriptions are used, and the initial and main orientation of an imaginary tour. In Experiment 1, 48 participants listened to survey or route descriptions in which information was mainly north-oriented (matching the initial heading and main direction of travel expressed in the description). In Experiment 2, 40 participants listened to route descriptions in which the initial orientation (north-oriented) was mismatched with the main direction of travel (east-oriented). Participants performed pointing task while facing north vs south (Exp. 1 and 2), and while facing east vs west (Exp. 2), as well as a map drawing task and several visuospatial measures. In both experiments, the results showed that pointing was easier while facing north than while facing south, and map drawings were arranged with a north-up orientation (with no difference between survey and route descriptions). In Experiment 2, pointing while facing east was easier than in the other pointing conditions. The results obtained with the visuospatial tasks showed that perspective-taking (PT) skill was the main predictor of the ability to imagine positions misaligned with the direction expressed in the descriptions (i.e., pointing while facing south in Experiment 1; pointing while facing north, south or west in Experiment 2). Overall, these findings indicate that mental representations derived from spatial descriptions are specifically oriented and their orientation is influenced by the main direction of travel and by the initial orientation. These mental representations, and the adoption of counter-aligned imaginary orientations, demand visuospatial skills and PT ability in particular.

Age-differences in environment route learning: The role of input and recall-test modalities in young and older adults

The aim of this research was to examine age-related differences in young and older adults in route learning, using different types of learning and recall test modalities. A sample of young adults (20–30years old) and older adults (60–70years old) learned a city route by using either a map or a description; they then performed a verification (verbal task) and map drawing (visuo-spatial task) tests. Results showed that, in both age groups, the effect of the learning condition changed as a function of the recall task: only after map learning did participants perform better in map drawing than in sentence verification tasks (no differences between the two measures were found in the description condition). The type of learning modality also showed age differences, but was detected only in the map drawing task: after map learning (but not after description learning) older adults did perform like younger adults in map drawing. However, age-related differences were mainly found in relation to type of recall task. In the verification test, older adults performed like younger ones in direct spatial sentences, but older adults underperformed in indirect sentences (in which test information was not explicitly presented). In map drawing, the two groups performed similarly in remembering and ordering landmarks, whereas older adults underperformed in positioning the landmarks correctly. These results suggest that recall tests are sensitive modalities in examining age-related differences, revealing which abilities are preserved (or otherwise) in mental route representations.

Learning a route using a map and/or description in young and older adults

The study investigates age-related differences between young and older adults in environment learning. A sample of young adults (aged 20–30 years) and older adults (aged 60–70 years) was asked to learn a route under three conditions: using a map (M), a description (D), or a map plus a description (M + D). Results showed that spatial recall performance, measured with map drawing and pointing tasks, was higher under M and M + D conditions, than under D condition. Only in the map drawing task were age-related differences modulated by the learning conditions: Young adults performed better than older adults in D, but the two groups did not differ under M or M + D conditions. In contrast, independently of age group and learning condition, participants in the pointing task made fewer errors in aligned pointing compared to counteraligned pointing, and the performance was determined by their reasoning ability. Correlation analyses indicated a differential role played by age and fluid ability depending on the learning modality and the recall task considered. Overall, our findings suggest that in environment learning, the choice of input and the type of recall task modulate age-related differences between young and older adults.

Drawing maps with advice

We study the problem of the amount of information required to draw a complete or a partial map of a graph with unlabeled nodes and arbitrarily labeled ports. A mobile agent, starting at any node of an unknown connected graph and walking in it, has to accomplish one of the following tasks: draw a complete map of the graph, i.e., find an isomorphic copy of it including port numbering, or draw a partial map, i.e., a spanning tree, again with port numbering. The agent executes a deterministic algorithm and cannot mark visited nodes in any way. None of these map drawing tasks is feasible without any additional information, unless the graph is a tree. Hence we investigate the minimum number of bits of information (minimum size of advice) that has to be given to the agent to complete these tasks. It turns out that this minimum size of advice depends on the number n of nodes or the number m of edges of the graph, and on a crucial parameter μ , called the multiplicity of the graph, which measures the number of nodes that have an identical view of the graph. We give bounds on the minimum size of advice for both above tasks. For μ = 1 our bounds are asymptotically tight for both tasks and show that the minimum size of advice is very small. For μ > 1 the minimum size of advice increases abruptly. In this case our bounds are asymptotically tight for topology recognition and asymptotically almost tight for spanning tree construction.

Spatial mental representations derived from survey and route descriptions: When individuals prefer extrinsic frame of reference

The present research investigates the role of individual differences in preference for adopting extrinsic frame of reference (EFR) in ability to represent mentally spatial information learned through survey and route descriptions. A sample of 191 participants (100 females and 91 males) was categorized as four groups with high (H-EFR), medium-high (MH-EFR), medium-low (ML-EFR) and low (L-EFR) preference. The groups listened to two spatial descriptions in survey and route perspectives, subsequently performing true/false verification and map drawing tasks. They also performed a number of visuo-spatial, verbal and geographical pointing tasks. Results showed a general better performance of the H-EFR group and of males – in comparison with lower-ability counterparts and females respectively – in spatial text recall tasks and in other spatial measures. Moreover, spatial ability interacts with text perspective: in verification test the H-EFR group outperformed the lower groups in survey and route inferential sentences and in map drawing the superiority of H-EFR group was shown with survey (but not with route) text. Overall, the results suggest that individuals with high preference for extrinsic frame of reference are able to manage environment information in both spatial perspectives even if they prefer to express it in survey format. That preference is specifically sustained by spatial abilities.

Empirical evaluation of virtual environment technology as an experimental tool in developmental spatial cognition research

The study compared developmental aspects of spatial knowledge acquisition in a real and a virtual large-scale environment according to the classical study of Cohen and Schuepfer (1980) with 40 younger children (7–8 years old), 40 older children (11–12 years old), and 40 adults. All participants learned the correct route through a maze, recalled the inherent landmarks, and drew a map of the maze. The results revealed equivalent age effects for these tasks in the real and the virtual world. In both conditions younger children needed more trials to learn the route and showed less configurational knowledge than older children and adults. Age group performance on landmark recollection did not differ in either the virtual or the real world maze. Except for the map drawing task performance was always worse in the virtual world condition. Because the developmental process was comparable in real and virtual environments, the results support the use of virtual environments for the research on developmental aspects of spatial knowledge.