Manufacturing Process Of Materials Research Articles

Simultaneous carbon fiber layer thickness and direction measurement and identification using a novel eddy current sensor and simplified multi-scale 1D-ResNet network

A novel eddy current sensor, featuring a triangular excitation coil and three rectangular receiving coils, is proposed for simultaneously detecting carbon fiber layer thickness and directions in the manufacturing process of carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) materials. It can disclose various carbon fiber layers and directions based on the signals obtained from the three receiving coils. However, classification of carbon fiber layers and directions proves challenging due to the complexity of signal features resulting from different combinations of carbon fiber layers and directions. To address this issue, we propose the use of a simplified multi-scale 1D-ResNet network. Comparative analysis reveals that our proposed network achieves higher train and validation accuracy compared to single-scale 1D-ResNet networks and different layers 1D-ResNet networks. Furthermore, the proposed simplified network not only achieves high classification accuracy with 100% and 99.7% for carbon fiber layers and directions, respectively, but also requires less training time compared to multi-scale 1D-ResNet networks. The novel eddy current sensor proposed in this study enables accurate recognition of carbon fiber layers and their directional orientation through the implementation of a simplified multi-scale 1D-ResNet network in the manufacturing process of CFRP materials. This innovation significantly enhances the quality of CFRP materials during manufacturing, ensuring their strength aligns with predetermined orientations.

Evaluating the Hybridization and Treatment Effects on the Mechanical Properties of Enset and Sisal Hybrid Composites

Natural fibers are among the most employed reinforcements in the manufacturing process of innovative fiber-based composite materials. As with any composite materials, the properties of composites depend on the type and properties of the fiber, fiber structure, composition (hybridization), and treatment. In this study, the composite was fabricated by using hand lay-up with 100/0, 75/25, 50/50, 25/75, and 0/100 Enset/Sisal (E/S) hybridization ratio. Three cases, i.e., untreated, 5%, and 10% NaOH treatment were considered. The effects of hybridization and treatment on the mechanical and water absorption properties of woven and unidirectional orientation of E/S hybrid composite were evaluated by using a two-factors analysis of variance. The fiber–matrix interfacial fractured surface was characterized by scanning electron microscopy. The treated (5% NaOH) and woven fiber orientation exhibited better mechanical properties than untreated and unidirectional hybrid composites. The flexural and tensile strength of the woven composite was improved by 5% and 9%, respectively, when compared with woven untreated 50/50 volume ratio of composites. In both samples and orientations, the hybridization effects show a higher percentage contribution to the mechanical properties. But, in both orientations of composite samples, the treatment effects show a higher percentage contribution for water absorption properties.

Renewable insulation panels made with Cynodon dactylon grass for building applications: Physical, mechanical, acoustic, and thermal properties

This paper presents a pilot study investigating the manufacturing process and properties of novel bio-based materials intended for insulation in building walls. Panels with a thickness of 20mm were fabricated by mixing grass, water, and potato starch, followed by pressing and heating. Various combinations of coarse, medium, and fine Cynodon dactylon particles, along with three starch-to-water ratios (1:3, 1:4, and 1:5), were explored. The panels underwent characterization in terms of density, quasi-static compressive behavior, quasi-static flexural strength, high-strain compressive strength, sound absorption coefficient, thermal conductivity, and degradation under external environmental conditions. Results indicate that density is influenced by particle size and micro-structure arrangement, while static compressive stiffness is affected by both particle size and starch-to-water ratio. The panels exhibit low damage and effective dissipation under compressive high-strain deformation. The sound absorption test reveals superior capabilities (Class III of ISO 11654:1997) due to the porous structure. Thermal conductivity values ranging from 0.075 to 0.092 Wm−1K−1 support the application as a thermal insulation material. Furthermore, the study demonstrates that reducing particle size and increasing starch-to-water ratio enhance mechanical properties while slightly diminishing acoustic and thermal performance. Under external environmental conditions, the panels lasted more than 1 months, demonstrating acceptable resistance to rain and humidity. Comparative analysis with other natural bio-based materials shows that Cynodon dactylon-starch panels possess similar or superior physical, mechanical, acoustic, and thermal characteristics. These findings suggest that these panels could serve as environmentally friendly alternatives in the insulation materials sector within the building industry.

(Invited) Chemical Mechanical Planarization Integrated Data Collaboration: Uncover Hidden Interactions for Predictive Maintenance and PCN

This article introduces an innovative analytical methodology that employs machine learning to optimize and predict consumable impacts for Chemical Mechanical Planarization (CMP). By harnessing fleet CMP equipment performance and individual equipment characteristics, our proposed approach aims to elevate wafer-level quality, maximize equipment utilization rates, and minimize unnecessary downtime. CMP, a multifaceted process, its performance is often influenced by strong interactions from its critical components including slurry, pad, machine recipe, and dresser usage. This requires control beyond hardware advancements, especially when equipment is pushed to its limits. Therefore, the demand for higher precision on-wafer performance mandates a data collaboration with sophisticated analytical strategy. In addition, a digitalized product change notification (PCN) concept is also introduced to demonstrate effectiveness of applying integrated data analytics collaboratively across semiconductor chain to accelerate material manufacturing process changes, minimizing impacts on wafer results and shortening the learning cycle and ramp time to full production.Our study leverages data analytics to explore differences between equipment within the same fleet of similar processing. Engineers can deploy a process based on the historical performance of specific equipment, supported by a model trained on data from the same fleet. Furthermore, our approach enables each equipment to predict its own fingerprinted consumable maintenance, accurately forecasting the maintenance time for consumable changes. This concept is equally applicable for consumable PCN migrations.The first use case is to demonstrate the use of integrated data for fleet matching of CMP equipment and/or consumable batches running similar processes. This is particularly crucial as the demand for process precision increases and the need to reduce post-CMP result variability in removal rates and wafer-level uniformity intensifies. This approach could add proactive data driven strategy for process engineers who traditionally concentrate on the removal rate, a highly influential factor, with the standard deviation of platen and machine data identified as a key parameter.The second use case employs heatmaps analysis and proposes scatter plots as an intuitive method to comprehend intricate connections between average removal rates and various parameters. Machine learning is particularly advantageous in this context, as no single parameter plays a dominant role. Preliminary observations suggested, for example that dresser and pad characteristics may have compounding impacts to the wafer level performance.In summary, this article provides a roadmap for in-depth CMP data analysis fed into machine learning, aiming to unravel trends and influential factors that can enhance process optimization and shorten the PCN qualification timeline to meet the increasing demands for CMP process precision and efficiency in High Volume Manufacturing (HVM).

The Formation of a Low-Carbon Steel/Ni-Cr-W Alloy Bimetallic Material via Liquid–Solid Compound Casting with a Laser Assisted Solid Surface

The aim of this study was to develop a new manufacturing process for bimetallic materials by combining laser treatment with traditional casting methods. This process involves laser-treating nickel alloy-grade UNS 6230 plates to create a regular macro-relief on their surface. These treated plates are then placed in a sand mold, and molten non-alloy steel (S235JRG2) is poured into the mold to create bimetallic layered castings. The experimental procedure focuses on optimizing the melt-to-solid phase ratios and pouring temperatures to achieve a uniform microstructure and strong mechanical properties in the bimetals. The produced bimetallic castings are suitable for applications in the oil refining and chemical industries and heavy machinery sector. The quantitative results indicate that the optimized process parameters lead to a high-quality transition zone with minimal defects, characterized by the diffusion of alloying elements from the nickel alloy to the steel. The microstructure, chemical, and phase compositions were evaluated using XRD and SEM with EDS, confirming the formation of a robust metallurgical bond. Key findings include a significant improvement in the hardness and strength of the transition layer, with the optimal pouring temperature being 1600 °C. The resulting bimetallic materials demonstrate an improved performance in demanding industrial environments.

Optimizing Masonry Mortar: Experimental Insights into Physico-Mechanical Properties Using Recycled Aggregates and Natural Fibers

The European Green Deal establishes the efficient management of construction resources as one of its main lines of action. In this sense, the recovery of construction and demolition waste for its reincorporation into the manufacturing process of new sustainable materials has become necessary for the industry. This work deals with the physical and mechanical characterization of cement mortars made with recycled concrete aggregates and reinforced with natural fibers. The reinforcement fibers used (abaca, coconut, and toquilla) are more environmentally friendly compared to traditional synthetic reinforcements. The aim of this research is to analyze the main physico-mechanical properties of these sustainable cement mortars. The results show that mortars made with recycled sand have a lower density and better thermal performance than traditional mortars. In addition, with the incorporation of these natural fibers, the flexural strength of the mortars with recycled aggregate increased by up to 37.6%. Another advantage obtained from the incorporation of these natural fibers is the reduction in shrinkage in the masonry mortars during the drying process, giving them greater dimensional stability and making their behavior similar to that of traditional mortars. Thus, this work shows the potential application of masonry mortars produced under circular economy criteria and their application in the building sector.

Are Electric Vehicles Always Better for the Environment?

AbstractElectric vehicles have been touted for their environmental friendliness, as their carbon emissions are significantly reduced during the usage phase compared to traditional petrol vehicles. However, from a lifecycle perspective, it is necessary to examine how the components of electric vehicles are obtained, constructed, operated, maintained, and disposed to better inform of their impact on the environment. Moreover, the environment's focus is often on the impact of carbon emissions but less on other forms of environmental impact such as ecotoxicity to marine life.To better study the carbon emission reduction effect of electric vehicles throughout their entire lifecycle and their other environmental impacts, the petrol, and electric versions of the SAIC Roewe i6 MAX vehicles in China will be compared throughout their entire lifecycles, including raw material collection, transportation, manufacturing, usage, and disposal processes. The results for the diesel and hybrid vehicles will also be briefly covered for comparisons purposes.The study showed that the breakeven point for carbon emission between petrol vehicles and electric vehicles is at about 2.8 years for use in China. This means that electric vehicles produce more carbon emission in the manufacturing/ assembly and only after 2.8 years of usage, that they emit less carbon emissions than petrol cars. As expected, the carbon emissions of diesel and hybrid cars fell in between these two, with hybrid vehicles performing better than diesel vehicles. However, electric vehicles produced the worst marine toxicity, with hybrid cars being second.

Evaluating the durability performance of concrete containing clastic sand and GGBS

The manufacturing process of materials utilized in concrete production has environmental implications. The production of cement releases significant amounts of greenhouse gases, while the extraction of aggregates and sand poses challenges to the natural environment. To minimize the aforementioned challenges researchers are suggested to utilize industrial by-products as a partial alternative for these materials Fly ash, stone dust, GGBS, silica fume, and metakaolin are widely utilized alternatives to construction materials. The specific use of clastic sand as a partial substitute for fine aggregate has recently gained popularity . However, studies on the characteristics of concrete prepared using cementitious materials and clastic sand are very few. In this work, the effect of clastic sand with ground granulated blast furnace slag concrete is being investigated. The GGBS is added in place of cement from 0% to 45%. Further, clastic sand is added in different proportions in GGBS concrete. The electrical resistivity, water absorption, acid attack, and micro-structural studies are carried out on all mixes to know the durability properties. The results confirm that the addition of GGBS as a cementitious material enhances durability. The inclusion of 35% of GGBS as a substitute for cement is optimum for enhancing durability. Further, the inclusion of 35% GGBS as a cement substitute and 20% clastic sand shows a dense matrix and optimum results in enhancing durability. This is due to the pozzolanic activity of GGBS and clastic sand works as filler materials. This investigation suggests utilizing clastic sand along with GGBS as a cementitious material.

생분해성 PLA-PHA 폴리머 블로운 압출 가공 특성

As delivery culture grows rapidly, global regulations on disposable products and packaging materials are being strengthened. The use of various chemical additives and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plasticizers in the packaging material manufacturing process has been confirmed to cause water pollution and microplastics. Therefore, it is important to develop biodegradable packaging materials. When polybutylene adipate terephthalate (PBAT) is mixed with polybutylene adipate terephthalate (PLA), a biodegradable petroleum material, its applications in food and medical device packaging are limited owing to its low tensile strength and high opacity. However, the plant-based PLA composite material with added PHA exhibits excellent blown extrusion processability, improved tensile strength (MPa) by 32%, and improved transparency by more than 80%. Furthermore, in a comparative study, it was determined that the tensile strength of the composite material can be improved by 170% by changing the biodegradable mixing ratio. The composite material, which comprises PHA, is a white bioplastic known for its significant carbon reduction effect. It is expected to serve as a sustainable material for future generations.

P‐94: Strategies for Adjusting the Flowability of Photoresist from Aspects of Material Composition and Manufacturing Process

The flowability of the photoresist affects the flatness of the color resistance layer during the fabrication process of liquid crystal displays. Color photoresists with poor flowability will increase the usage of photoresists, leading to an increase in panel costs. In this paper, the factors affecting flowability were analyzed in the directions of material and manufacturing and the results were then validated through experiments. Finally, strategies to adjust the flowability of photoresists from aspects of material composition and manufacturing process are summarized.

Peridynamic differential operator for stress analysis of imperfect functionally graded porous sandwich beams based on refined zigzag theory

This study focuses on the stress analysis of imperfect functionally graded porous (FGP) sandwich beams using the Peridynamic Differential Operator (PDDO) and Refined Zigzag Theory (RZT). Functionally graded materials (FGMs) can be found in diverse engineering applications since they offer smooth transitions in the mechanical properties of distinct materials, unlike traditional composite materials. Micro-voids and porosities may appear inside the FGMs due to technical challenges during the manufacturing process of such materials. Therefore, understanding the stress variations of the FG sandwich beams with porosities/micro-voids, which are called imperfect FGMs, under loads is of vital importance. In order to achieve the porous configuration in the FG structures, the modified rule of mixtures is applied to calculate the effective material properties of FGMs. The RZT is very suitable for stress analysis of laminated composites, especially for thick and moderately thick beams. It contains only four kinematic variables and eliminates the use of the shear correction factors. In this study, the equilibrium equations of the RZT are solved by means of the PDDO for the stress analysis of imperfect FG sandwich beams having uniform and non-uniform porosity distributions. The PDDO transforms the differential equations into their nonlocal form, namely integral form, providing highly accurate approximations of the derivatives. A comprehensive PDDO analysis is performed for the investigation of the influence of the material variation, and even and uneven porosity distributions on the stress variations of the imperfect FG sandwich beams. It is noted that when the FG core exhibits soft material distributions, the effect of porosity is evident. The even type porosity distribution pattern is more influential on the axial displacement and stress variations in comparison with those of the uneven type porosity distribution pattern.

Design method for lens desensitization adapted to refractive index error

The design of optical systems not only considers the imaging performance but also the manufacturing difficulty and feasibility of the system. In practice, errors in the manufacturing process of glass materials and deviations in glass material parameters introduced in complex environments can both lead to degradation in the imaging quality of optical systems. Optical systems that are sensitive to glass material errors face increased manufacturing difficulty and reduced stability. This paper, based on geometrical optics theory, establishes an evaluation function for refractive index error sensitivity and analyzes its relationship with optical parameters and glass materials. It proposes a design method to reduce the refractive index sensitivity of optical systems. Through simulation verification and analysis using examples, the validity of the desensitization design method is confirmed.

Kinematics-Based Design Method and Experimental Validation of Internal Meshing Screw for High-Viscosity Fluid Mixing

The challenge of mixing high-viscosity materials is a common issue encountered in the manufacturing process of food materials. The advantages of the internal meshing screw mixer have led to its adoption in various manufacturing processes, but it has yet to be implemented in the food industry. The paper presents a design method for an internal meshing screw mixer based on kinematic principles. The mixer features a helical chamber created by alternating volumes formed by the stator and rotor, establishing an extension-dominated environment for mixing high-viscosity fluids. A kinematic model based on the internal cycloid principle was established, providing trajectories and equations for key points on the rotor, simulating both its rotation and revolution processes, and revealing the velocity variations at different points on the rotor. Based on the kinematic analysis results, a stator and rotor design method was developed according to relevant functional divisions. To achieve the desired motion effects, transmission and support devices were designed, and the relationship between the transmission device and the internal cycloid surface of the fixed rotor was established. The mixer’s application and mixing effectiveness in the food industry were validated using corn syrup and flour. Experimental results showed that the extensional mixer described in the paper effectively mixed high-viscosity fluids while also efficiently blending fine powders. Slurry viscosity was tested with a rheometer at different speeds with an eccentric rotor mixer. Results showed that viscosity decreased with increasing shear rate, with a more pronounced decrease at higher shear rates. The apparent viscosity trend remained consistent at different speeds, although variations were observed at lower shear rates, especially concerning speed. The non-Newtonian fluid index exhibited minimal variations at different speeds, while the consistency coefficient showed significant fluctuations. The mixing uniformity index of the slurry was used to evaluate the mixing uniformity and dispersion uniformity of this extensional mixer. At different rotational speeds, the density of the slurry changes little. The uniformity index of mixing decreases gradually with the increase of rotational speed, reaching its maximum at 15 r/min. The overall trend of the uniformity index decreases with increasing rotational speed, indicating a decrease in density uniformity. A peak appears at 45 r/min, possibly due to the maximum values of elongation rate and shear rate at this speed. As the rotational speed increases, the residence time of the material in the mixer decreases, which may be the main reason for the decrease in mixing uniformity. These findings provide valuable insights into the design and utilization of extension-dominated screw mixers within the food industry, laying a solid foundation for future research and practical applications in this field.

A Comprehensive Study on Net Zero Energy Buildings and Sustainable Construction Materials with Low Carbon Contents

One-third of the world's greenhouse gas emissions come from the building industry, with embodied carbon from the manufacture of building materials accounting for a sizable portion of these emissions. Prior research has mostly focused on examining the carbon emissions of low-rise structures, but it has failed to consider the significant influence that high-rise buildings have on a city's overall carbon emissions. Net-zero energy buildings (NZEBs) combine intelligent energy management strategies with conventional design knowledge to facilitate a sustainable and eco-friendly transition. The NZEB building revolution has the potential to become a long-term structural pillar for structures to come. The purpose of this study is to assess how various design factors and the embodied carbon in high-rise structures relate to one another. Additionally, the goal of this research is to keep annual consumer energy comfort in a home NZEB at its highest level without using any electricity from the electrical grid. In order to achieve long-term climate goals, our work emphasises the socio-economic advantages of adopting NZE buildings and further empowers consumer participation to minimise energy waste and carbon emissions. The findings provide a foundation for constructing high-rise structures in a more ecologically conscious manner to lower the structure's carbon emissions. The evaluation and comparison of the embedded carbon values takes into account the carbon emissions from the transportation and material manufacturing processes.

Multiscale modeling for enhanced battery health analysis: Pathways to longevity

AbstractThe issues of health assessment and lifespan prediction have always been prominent challenges in the large‐scale application of lithium‐ion batteries (LIBs). This paper reviews the multiscale modeling techniques and their applications in battery health analysis, including atomic scale computational chemistry, particle scale reaction simulations, electrode scale structural models, macroscale electrochemical models, and data‐driven models at the system level. Multiscale modeling offers a profound insight into material behavior and the aging process of batteries, thereby providing a valuable reference for both estimation and management strategies of battery state of health. To extend the battery lifespan, the utilization of artificial intelligence for material discovery and manufacturing process optimization, the implementation of end‐cloud collaborative battery management systems, and the design of a multiscale simulation integration platform are considered. A management framework aimed at extending battery life is further proposed. This framework offers a promising roadmap for addressing health analysis challenges in LIBs, ultimately leading to more reliable, efficient, and durable solutions for next‐generation batteries.

A model for the temperature-dependent creep/recovery behavior of dry fiber fabric considering in-plane tension

In the manufacturing process of fiber-reinforced composite materials, the preforming of dry fiber fabrics is typically carried out under specific out-of-plane pressure, in-plane tension, and at designated temperatures. The fabric exhibits significant time and temperature-dependent permanent deformation as well as creep/recovery behavior. Gaining a better understanding of these phenomena and harnessing predictive capabilities will be instrumental in achieving more precise control over fiber volume fraction and material composition. In this paper, creep/recovery experiments and cyclic loading-unloading tests were conducted on CF3031 dry fiber preforms under various in-plane tensions and temperatures, measuring in-plane strains using Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG) sensors. Based on this data, a modified Burgers viscoelastic-plastic model has been proposed to describe the time-dependent creep/recovery behavior of dry fiber fabric preforming under the coupled effects of in-plane tension, out-of-plane pressure, and temperature variations. This model employs a single set of equations and parameters to represent the complete creep/recovery process of the material. The experimental results align well with the predicted outcomes across different compression scenarios.

Investigating the impact of alkaline activator on the sustainability potential of geopolymer and alternative hybrid materials

Geopolymer binders are considered highly sustainable due to their utilization of industrial wastes. However, previous studies highlight the limited industrial-scale applications of geopolymers. Therefore, this study critically investigates the strength, cost, and environmental impact of geopolymers and alternative hybrid cement mixes to provide a complete picture for the sustainability analysis. Geopolymers and hybrid cement mixes are designed with varying proportions of alkaline activator (sodium hydroxide 5–25 wt%) and ordinary Portland cement (OPC) (15–35 wt%) respectively for the comparative analysis. The strength characteristics of designed mixes have been assessed by analyzing their compressive strength and microstructure. A comparative economic assessment has been made by contemplating the manufacturing and production costs of different materials used in geopolymer and hybrid cement mixes. ReCiPe Midpoint Life cycle assessment (LCA) has been performed to examine the environmental performance by considering the manufacturing and production processes of various binder and aggregate materials used in geopolymer and hybrid cement mixes. Mechanical and microstructural analysis shows that hybrid cement mix with 35 wt% of OPC yields the highest strength due to the formation of excess calcium aluminum silicate hydrate (C-A-S-H) and calcium silicate hydrate (C–S–H) gels than geopolymer mix containing 25 wt% of NaOH. Economic and life cycle assessment reveals that the geopolymer mix with 5 wt% NaOH offers the lowest cost and environmental impact as compared to others containing higher proportions of alkaline activator and OPC. Owing to the conflicting nature of the results, multi-criteria decision making approach has been used which presents the hybrid cement mix (with 35 wt% OPC) as the optimal and sustainable solution for the construction applications. The study's findings offer a sustainable direction for the construction industry by suggesting the application of hybrid concretes.

Geopolymer cement composite containing agriculture solid wastes: mechanical and durability performance

ABSTRACT This research aims to experiment with the integration of agricultural solid wastes into the manufacturing process of cementitious materials, ensuring that the resulting products exhibit satisfactory durability and mechanical properties. In this study, geopolymer composite (GP) was prepared using ground granulated blast furnace slag (BFS) and Arachis hypogaea (AH) fine dry peels as an example of agriculture waste is commonly available in Egypt. Some selected GP mixes were reinforced by nano magnetite (Fe3O4,NF). The prepared GP was cured for 28 days at two different circumferences, a normal curing at 25°C or hydrothermal curing at 60°C/0.02MPa. The setting times and compressive strength of the different types of manufactured general purpose (GP) were evaluated. The durability of the prepared GP against firing as well as H2SO4 acid (5%) attack were measured. The findings demonstrated that BFS/AH based GP offered diminished setting times and GP mixes hydrothermally cured at 60°C/0.02MPa adopted higher mechanical properties than those cured normally at room temperature. Besides, incorporation of AH dry peels up to 10% in GP manufacturing boosted the mechanical properties during the first 3 days for GP mixes cured at room temperature. Additionally, in comparison to the reference mix, the blended mix showed an accepted resistance to the effect of firing and astonishing resistance to acid attack. Admixing GP with 1% NF improved its durability in the two deterioration actions studied.

Eco-Design and Characterization of Sustainable Lightweight Gypsum Composites for Panel Manufacturing including End-of-Life Tyre Wastes.

The incorporation of rubber recycled aggregates from end-of-life tyres (ELT) in the manufacturing process of sustainable building materials has gained great interest in recent decades as a result of the large volume of this waste being generated annually. In this work, the objective is to make a contribution towards the circularity of construction products by carrying out a physico-mechanical characterisation of new gypsum composites made with the incorporation of these recycled rubber aggregates. To this end, up to 30% by volume of the original raw material has been substituted, analysing the mechanical resistance to bending and compression. Although lower than those of traditional gypsum material, both properties exceed the limits set at 1 and 2 MPa, respectively, by the current regulations. In addition, water absorption by capillarity significantly decreases, and thermal conductivity is reduced by more than 35% with respect to the reference material. Finally, in order to provide the research with a practical application, a prefabricated plate design has been proposed that incorporates the gypsum materials studied and an agglomerated rubber band that increases the thermal resistance and improves the efficiency of the designed construction system. In this way, this research reflects the potential of these novel building materials and explores new avenues for their application in building construction.

Embodied impacts of buildings from energy-carbon-water nexus perspective: A case study of university buildings

Despite extensive investment in energy efficiency efforts, the energy footprint of the building sector still contains over 40 % of the world's annual consumption of energy. Although most of a building's life cycle energy use comes from operational activities, a portion of it stems from embodied energy (EE), which is directly expended in a building's construction and indirectly consumed using materials. Because each material consumes not only different amounts but also different types of energy sources, studying embodied carbon (EC) is equally important. The building construction sector also consumes nearly 1/5th of global fresh water, which is becoming a grave concern, given the increasing frequency of droughts and wildfires. The fact that material manufacturing and construction processes also consume water makes it essential to not just assess energy and carbon but also embodied water (EW). The literature recommends evaluating total EW including direct and indirect EW as well as any EW associated with EE use. In this paper, macroeconomic models are utilized to compute and analyze the energy, carbon emission, and water embodied in four university buildings. The results show that the total EE, EC, and EW values for the four case study buildings vary from 13.1 to 51.1 GJ/m2, 1.4–10.0 kgCO2/m2, and 2,820–12,900 gal./m2, respectively. The EE values also show a near perfect positive correlation with EW values. However, the share of EREW in the total EW ranges from 13 % to 16 %, indicating that a decrease in EE use may not help decrease a majority of EW.