Mansonia Mosquitoes Research Articles

Geometric morphometrics to differentiate species and explore seasonal variation in three Mansonia species (Diptera: Culicidae) in central Thailand and their association with meteorological factors.

Mansonia mosquito species are recognised as a significant vector of human pathogens, primarily transmitting the filarial nematode, Brugia malayi. In central Thailand, the three most prevalent Mansonia species are Mansonia annulifera, Mansonia indiana and Mansonia uniformis. This study explored the influence of seasonal changes on the phenotypic variation of these Mansonia species in central Thailand using the geometric morphometrics (GM). To ensure accurate species identification, we integrated GM techniques with DNA barcoding, examining distinctions in both phenotype and genotype among the species. The intraspecific genetic divergence ranged from 0.00% to 1.69%, whereas the interspecific genetic divergence ranged from 10.52% to 16.36%. The clear distinction between intra- and interspecific distances demonstrated the presence of a barcoding gap, confirming the successful differentiation of the three Mansonia mosquito species through DNA barcoding. Similarly, the interspecies GM assessment for classifying Mansonia species demonstrated a high degree of accuracy, with an overall performance of 98.12%. Exploring seasonal variation in the three Mansonia species revealed wing variations across different seasons, and pronounced variations appearing in the cool season. Regarding their association with meteorological factors, Ma. annulifera and Ma. uniformis showed significant positive correlations with temperature (p < 0.05), and Ma. uniformis also displayed a significant negative correlation with atmospheric pressure (p < 0.05). The insights from this study will deepen our understanding of the adaptive patterns of Mansonia mosquitoes in Thailand's central region, paving the way for enhanced disease surveillance related to these vectors.

The effect of physical barriers under a raised house on mosquito entry: an experimental study in rural Gambia.

Anopheles gambiae, the major malaria mosquito in sub-Saharan Africa, feed largely indoors at night. Raising a house off the ground with no barriers underneath reduces mosquito-house entry. This experiment tested whether walling off the space under an elevated hut affects mosquito-hut entry. Four inhabited experimental huts, each of which could be moved up and down, were used in rural Gambia. Nightly collections of mosquitoes were made using light traps and temperature and carbon dioxide levels monitored indoors and outdoors using loggers. Each night, a reference hut was kept at ground level and three huts raised 2m above the ground; with the space under the hut left open, walled with air-permeable walls or solid walls. Treatments were rotated every four nights using a randomized block design. The experiment was conducted for 32 nights. Primary measurements were mosquito numbers and indoor temperature in each hut. A total of 1,259 female Anopheles gambiae sensu lato were collected in the hut at ground level, 655 in the hut with an open ground floor, 981 in the hut with air-permeable walls underneath and 873 in the hut with solid walls underneath. Multivariate analysis, adjusting for confounders, showed that a raised hut open underneath had 53% fewer mosquitoes (95% CI 47-58%), those with air-permeable walls underneath 24% fewer (95% CI 9-36%) and huts with solid walls underneath 31% fewer (95% CI 24-37%) compared with a hut on the ground. Similar results were found for Mansonia spp. and total number of female mosquitoes, but not for Culex mosquitoes where hut entry was unaffected by height or barriers. Indoor temperature and carbon dioxide levels were similar in all huts. Raising a house 2m from the ground reduces the entry of An. gambiae and Mansonia mosquitoes, but not Culex species. The protective effect of height is reduced if the space underneath the hut is walled off.

Effect of Climate Change on Mansonia Mosquitoes Distribution on Filariasis Transmission Potential (Zoonosis) in Pajaten Hamlet, Keleyan, Socah Bangkalan, Madura

This study examines how climate change affects the distribution of Mansonia genus mosquitoes and their potential role in filariasis transmission in Pajaten Hamlet, Keleyan, Socah Bangkalan, Madura, Indonesia. Filariasis is an endemic disease in the area that is spread through mosquito bites and possibly zoonotic transmission. This study examines the biting behavior of Mansonia mosquitoes in bionomics and its relationship with environmental parameters such as temperature and humidity. The results showed an increase in the population of Mansonia mosquitoes in Pajaten Hamlet, especially during the rainy season. Morphological identification revealed the characteristics of Mansonia mosquitoes, with a focus on nocturnal biting behavior. Dissection of adult mosquitoes provided insights into the reproductive process of Mansonia mosquitoes. The influence of climate and environmental conditions on mosquito abundance was also discussed, emphasizing the correlation between mosquito prevalence and factors such as swamp water availability and vegetation. The study also highlights the importance of sanitation in the spread of filariasis and proposes control measures tailored to local conditions. This study conclude that the impact of climate change on the Mansonia mosquitoes spread and emphasizes the need for proactive measures in filariasis control. Control strategies, including habitat clearance, use of bed nets, and deworming of potential reservoirs, are suggested to break the chain of disease transmission. This study makes a valuable contribution to developing effective strategies to control filariasis in the context of climate change.

IDENTIFICATION AND DENSITY OF MOSQUITO SPECIES THAT CAUSE FILARIASIS DISEASE IN TANIWEL WEST SERAM DISTRICT

The purpose of this study was to look at the types and density of mosquitoes in the Taniwel district. Research time is August 2021. This research is descriptive in nature. where only see the type and density using the existing formula. In this study, Mansonia and Anopheles mosquitoes were found. The results showed that mosquitoes found in East Taniwel sub-district, Sohuwe Village, Lumahlatal, and Maloang found 2 genera of mosquitoes namely Mansonia and Anopheles with mansonia density in Sohuwe village 3.29%, Lumahlatan 2.83% and Maloang 2.66. while the density of Anopheles in Sohuwe village was 3.62%, Lumahlatan 3.45% and Maloang 2.66%.

Identification of Three Novel Genes in Phenuiviridae Detected from Aedes Mosquitoes in Hokkaido, Japan.

Mosquitoes are important arthropod vectors of arboviruses. The family Phenuiviridae includes several medically important arboviruses, such as the Rift Valley fever phlebovirus and Toscana phlebovirus. Recent comprehensive genetic analyses have identified many novel mosquito-specific viruses that are phylogenetically related to Phenuiviridae. We collected mosquitoes from Hokkaido in northern Japan, and conducted reverse transcription polymerase chain reactions (RT-PCRs) targeting the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) gene of Phenuiviridae. A total of 285 pools, comprising 3,082 mosquitoes from 2 genera and 8 species, were collected. Partial RdRp sequences were detected in 97 pools, which allowed us to classify the viruses into 3 clusters provisionally designated as Etutanne virus (ETTV) 1, 2, and 3. The virus most closely related to ETTVs is Narangue virus (family Phenuiviridae, genus Mobuvirus), which was detected in Mansonia mosquitoes; the nucleotide and amino acid sequences of the Narangue virus are 58.4-66.2% and 64.7-86.7% similar, respectively, to those of ETTVs. PCR and RT-PCR using DNA and RNase digestion methods showed that the ETTVs are RNA viruses that do not form non-retroviral integrated RNA virus sequences in the mosquito genome.

DNA Barcoding of Morphologically Characterized Mosquitoes Belonging to the Genus Mansonia from the Atlantic Forest and Brazilian Savanna

The identification of mosquito species is necessary for determining the entomological components of disease transmission. However, identification can be difficult in species that are morphologically similar. The cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) DNA barcode region is considered a valuable and reliable diagnostic tool for mosquito species recognition, including those that belong to species complexes. Mansonia mosquitoes are found in forests near swampy areas. They are nocturnal and are highly attracted to light. Hematophagous adult females exhibit aggressive biting behavior and can become infected with and transmit pathogens during their feeding, including some epizootic viruses and avian malaria. In Brazil, twelve Mansonia species have been reported. In a recent study from the São Paulo Zoo in Brazil, three morphologically distinct species were collected and identified, namely: Mansonia (Mansonia) indubitans, Ma. (Man.) pseudotitillans and Ma. (Man.) titillans. However, confirmation of these species by molecular identification was unsuccessful due to a lack of COI sequences in the GenBank database. Thus, this research aimed to describe the COI DNA barcode sequences of some morphologically characterized Mansonia (Man.) species from Brazil and to determine their utility in delimiting species collected from the Atlantic Forest and Brazilian Savanna. Accordingly, we provide tools for the genetic identification of species that play a significant role in pathogen transmission in wildlife and potentially humans. We show that the delimitation of Mansonia species via five different approaches based on COI DNA sequences (BI, NJ, ASAP, bPTP and GMYC) yield basically the same groups identified by traditional taxonomy, and we provide the identification of specimens that were previously identified only up to the subgenus level. We also provide COI sequences from two Mansonia species that were not previously available in sequence databases, Ma. wilsoni and Ma. pseudotitillans, and thus contribute to the ongoing global effort to standardize DNA barcoding as a molecular means of species identification.

Study of karyotype and constitutive heterochromatin of Mansonia spp. (Diptera: Culicidae) in the area surrounding the Jirau Hydroelectric Dam, Rondônia, Brazil.

Mansonia mosquitoes transmit arboviruses to humans. This study describes the karyotypes and C-banding of Mansonia humeralis, Mansonia titillans, Mansonia pseudotitillans, and Mansonia indubitans. From the 202 larvae, the brain ganglia were dissected (n=120) for the preparation of slides. Twenty slides with well-distended chromosomes for each species (10 for karyotyping and 10 for C-banding) were selected for further study. The haploid genome and the average lengths of the chromosomal arms differed in relation to the centromere between species, and intraspecific differences also occurred in the distribution of the C-bands. These results are useful for better understanding of the chromosomal variability of Mansonia mosquitoes.

Contrasting Lymphatic Filariasis with Kaposi Sarcoma in a Known HIV Disease Patient: A Clinical and Histopathological Presentation and Implication to Care

Lymphatic filariasis is a systemic disease arising from infestation with filarial worms. The species that commonly infest the lymphatic vessels include Wuchereria bancrofti and Brugia malayi. The larval stages of the worms are transmitted by biting mosquitoes or flies. Wuchereria bancrofti is transmitted by night biting anopheline mosquitoes. The infection is common in tropical Africa. The adult worms infiltrate the lymphatics and produce large numbers of microfilaria into the circulation. The species B. malayi is inoculated by Mansonia or Anopheles mosquitoes and is known to cause less severe disease. Infection with W. bancrofti may present diversely from subclinical infection to overt manifestation such as elephantiasis. Acute infection may present with febrile illness, pain or tenderness in the area of the inflammed lymphatics. The chronic phase is usually characterized by presence of lymphadenopathy in lower limbs, retroperitoneal tissues, lymphedema, hydrocele and elephantiasis. The clinical presentation of lymphatic filariasis can mimic that of Kaposi Sarcoma, a malignancy common in advanced HIV disease and may present a diagnostic dilemma especially in the absence of histopathologic findings. We report a case of a 73 year old known HIV disease patient presenting with chronic indurating leg swelling. Histopathology report revealed papillomatus and hyperkeratotic skin lesions with no evidence of malignancy and no presence of microfilaria on a blood smear.

DNA barcoding suggests new species for the Mansonia subgenus (Mansonia, Mansoniini, Culicidae, Diptera) in the area surrounding the Jirau hydroelectric dam, Porto Velho municipality, Rondônia state, Brazil

Previous studies have linked the construction of hydroelectric dams with increases in the density of mosquitoes, especially Mansonia. In Brazil, Mansonia mosquitoes are still poorly studied at the taxonomic, biological, ecological and epidemiological levels, and nothing is known about the genetic diversity and the cryptic speciation of the group. The current study analyzed the molecular taxonomy of Mansonia species captured in the area surrounding the Jirau hydroelectric dam, Rondônia state, Brazil. Samples were collected from fifteen locations between 2018 and 2019. Genomic DNA of the specimens was extracted, and the DNA barcode region of the Cytochrome Oxidase, subunit I gene was amplified with PCR and both DNA strands were sequenced. The dataset was analyzed using MEGA, Mr. Bayes and DnaSP software. The results provided COI sequences for 100 specimens collected in the area surrounding from Jirau hydroelectric dam. These belonged to five species of the Mansonia subgenus, identified morphologically as Mansonia humeralis, Mansonia amazonensis, Mansonia titillans, Mansonia dyari and Mansonia indubitans. Findings showed that the COI gene is an effective and accessible DNA barcode that provides a high-resolution tool for delimiting species within the subgenus Mansonia, with the tree construction (Bayesian Inference) well supported and non-overlapping intraspecific and interspecific (K2-P) genetic distance values. These findings also indicate the occurrence of cryptic speciation within M. dyari and near of M. titillans. This is the first study to apply molecular tools to the taxonomy of Mansonia species from Brazil.

SPECIES DISTRIBUTION UPDATE OF MANSONIA BLANCHARD, 1901 MOSQUITOES (DIPTERA: CULICIDAE) IN INDONESIA WITH THE ILLUSTRATED KEY FOR FEMALE MOSQUITO

Mansonia is a genus of mosquitoes of which several species are confirmed vectors of lymphatic filariasis. Many countries including Indonesia are still struggling to eliminate lymphatic filariasis. Report of the Mansonia mosquito diversity and its distribution is essential to develop the control strategies. Six of eight Mansonia species have been confirmed as lymphatic filariasis vectors in Indonesia. This paper aims to update the distribution of the Mansonia mosquito in Indonesia. Species distribution data were summarized from various literature regarding the Mansonia mosquito. The data is complemented by the results of the National Research on Disease Vector and Reservoir (Rikhus Vektora) results conducted by the National Institute of Health Research and Development (NIHRD) in 2015-2018. There were new distribution records for four species of Mansonia mosquitoes in Indonesia. Mansonia annulata Leicester, Ma. annulifera (Theobald), and Ma. indiana Edwards are now recorded distributed throughout the archipelago. Meanwhile, Ma. bonneae Edwards has a new distribution record in the Moluccas. The illustrated identification key for female Mansonia mosquitoes in Indonesia is provided in this paper.

Kepadatan Nyamuk Mansonia dan Anopheles dengan Prevalensi Penyakit Filariasis di Kecamatan Taniwel Kabupaten Seram Bagian Barat

Filariasis is an infectious disease caused by filarial worms and transmitted by Mansonia and Anopheles mosquitoes. The prevalence of filariasis is influenced by the density of Mansonia and Anopheles mosquitoes. The purpose of this study was to determine the density of Mansonia, Anopheles mosquitoes, and zoonotic animals, and their relationship to the prevalence of filariasis in Taniwel District, West Seram Regency. This type of research is survey research and case control. The population in this study was the density of Mansonia and Anopheles mosquitoes, and cases of filariasis. While the research sample is people who suffer from filariasis, larval density, Mansonia and Anopheles mosquitoes. Data on the density of larvae/mosquitoes of Mansonia and Anopheles were analyzed descriptively, and analysis of the relationship between density of community habits and prevalence of filariasis was carried out by using the chi square test with SPSS version 20.0 program. The results showed that people used mosquito repellent lotion or brought mosquito rackets before doing activities at night. The density of Mansonia mosquitoes in Sohuwe Village is 4.00-5.85; Lumahlatal Village 5.00-6.60; and Maloang Village 4.00-6.20. Meanwhile, the density of Anopheles mosquitoes in Sohuwe Village is 7.00-9.85; Lumahlatal Village 5.89-6.82; and Maloang Village 5.00-6.50. The prevalence rate of filariasis in Sohuwe Village is 0.66; Lumahlatal Village 0.88; and Maloang Village 1.54; and there is a significant relationship between people's habits and the incidence of filariasis.

Mosquito Behavior of Mansonia and Anopheles and Its Relationship With the Filariasis Disease in Taniwel Timur District and Taniwel, Seram barat regency

Mansonia mosquitoes are in endemic forest and swamp areas, dirty environments and unused fish farming areas, Mansonia mosquitoes are aggressive and suck blood when humans are at night, outside the home. Anopheles actively seeks blood during illness and at night. This research uses survey and cross sectional research, it discusses to study mosquitoes, the density of mosquitoes mansonia and anopheles, as well as looking at the development of disease (prevalence) of filariasis. The population in this study is the population and population of mosquito mansonia and anopheles in East Taniwel and Taniwel Districts. Filariasis in Taniwel and East Taniwel Sub-districts, West Seram District was reported in local health centers of around 15 people. The outbreak of filariasis in Taniwel District around 2010-2019. Mansonia bleeds people at home when sick at 18: 00-18: 45. While outside the house at night 20: 00-20: 45. While Anopheles mosquitoes bite humans, at dusk and at night at 16.00-24.00, The peak is 02.00-03.00. The density of mansonia mosquitoes in Sohuwe Village, 4.00 - 5.85, Lumalatal 5.00 - 6.60 and Maloang 4.00-5.50 (moderate), Anopheles in Sohuwe 7.00-9.85, Lumalatal 5.89- 6.82, Maloang 5.00-6.50 (high). The prevalence of filariasis in Sohuwe 0.66, Lumlat 0.88. and Maloang 1.54. There is a relationship between attitudes and community relations with filariasis

Chikungunya virus Detection in Aedes aegypti and Culex quinquefasciatus during an Outbreak in the Amazon Region.

Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) was first reported in Brazil in 2014 and, after it spread countrywide, an outbreak of febrile illness with reports of arthralgia happened in the municipality of Xinguara, Pará, Brazil in 2017, indicating the virus’ circulation. Here, we aimed to investigate CHIKV in mosquito vectors collected during an active surveillance of virus isolation in cell culture by using molecular detection and viral genome sequencing. A total of 492 Aedes, Culex and Mansonia mosquitoes were collected and separated in 36 pools according to the species and sex, and 22.2% (8/36) were positive. CHIKV was indentified in pools of Ae. aegypti females (n = 5), an Ae. aegypti male (n = 1) and in Culex quinquefasciatus females (n = 2). However, as the mosquitoes’ whole bodies were macerated and used for detection, one cannot suggest the role of the latter in the viral transmission. Despite this, vector competence studies must be carried out in the different species to investigate long-term adaptations. Viral genome sequencing has characterized the East-Central-South-African (ECSA) genotype in all positive pools analyzed, corroborating previous reports for the Amazon region.

Colonization of Coquillettidia linealis (Skuse) with reference to other Coquillettidia and Mansonia species.

The immature stages of Coquillettidia and Mansonia mosquitoes are cryptic and spend the duration of their development attached to the tissues of subsurface aquatic plants. This obligatory association makes them difficult to collect and has precluded detailed investigation of the biology of Coquillettidia linealis, a species of significant pest and vector status in Australia, as well as other species in the genus Coquillettidia in Australia and elsewhere. This paper describes the first successful establishment and maintenance of a colony of Cq. linealis. Blood-seeking wild adults were collected and induced to oviposit under laboratory conditions, where methods were developed to rear larval populations to adult maturity in a colony that was maintained through eight successive generations. Colonies of Coquillettidia xanthogaster and Coquillettidia sp. nr crassipes were also established and reared through at least six generations and five generations, respectively, while two species of Mansonia, Mansonia uniformis and Mansonia septempunctata, were also reared successfully for six and two generations, respectively.

Assessing the Presence of Wuchereria bancrofti Infections in Vectors Using Xenomonitoring in Lymphatic Filariasis Endemic Districts in Ghana.

Mass drug administration (MDA) is the current mainstay to interrupt the transmission of lymphatic filariasis. To monitor whether MDA is effective and transmission of lymphatic filariasis indeed has been interrupted, rigorous surveillance is required. Assessment of transmission by programme managers is usually done via serology. New research suggests that xenomonitoring holds promise for determining the success of lymphatic filariasis interventions. The objective of this study was to assess Wuchereria bancrofti infection in mosquitoes as a post-MDA surveillance tool using xenomonitoring. The study was carried out in four districts of Ghana; Ahanta West, Mpohor, Kassena Nankana West and Bongo. A suite of mosquito sampling methods was employed, including human landing collections, pyrethrum spray catches and window exit traps. Infection of W. bancrofti in mosquitoes was determined using dissection, conventional and real-time polymerase chain reaction and loop mediated isothermal amplification assays. Aedes, Anopheles coustani, An. gambiae, An. pharoensis, Culex and Mansonia mosquitoes were sampled in each of the four study districts. The dissected mosquitoes were positive for filarial infection using molecular assays. Dissected An. melas mosquitoes from Ahanta West district were the only species found positive for filarial parasites. We conclude that whilst samples extracted with Trizol reagent did not show any positives, molecular methods should still be considered for monitoring and surveillance of lymphatic filariasis transmission.

Bionomik Mansonia uniformis dan Mansonia dives sebagai Vektor Filariasis pada Beberapa Wilayah di Kalimantan

Mansonia mosquitoes spread across the globe and several species as a vector. Ma. uniformis were known a vectors of Rift Valley Fever (RVF) and filariasis, while Ma. dives is vector of filariasis. This research aims to behavior of Ma. uniformis and Ma. dives in the form habits of blood sucking activity, resting behaviour and fluctuations density in several areas of Borneo. Natural population of Ma. uniformis and Ma. dives were collected by human landing collection and resting collection from 18:00 to 06:00 outdoor and indoor. The results showed bite activities. Ma. uniformis and Ma. dives in all areas of research are exophagic, while the rest conduct Ma. uniformis in the village Dadahup, Pulau Ku’u and Bangkal Ulu is indoor resting, while in Mandomai is outdoor resting. Behavior breaks Ma. dives in the area a lot more research that is indoor resting namely Mandomai and Bangkal Ulu Village, while the Dadahup village is exophilic. Highest fluctuations activity suck blood and rest on Ma. Uniformis in and out the house generally at 19.00 - 22.00, while at Ma. dives at 23.00 - 01.00. The behavior of mosquitoes is a difference, so the controlling method is also different.

SEASONAL ABUNDANCE AND SPOROZOITE RATES IN MALARIA VECTORS IN NCHELENGE INCLUDING ISLANDS OF LAKE MWERU AN AREA WITH A HIGH BURDEN OF MALARIA IN NORTHERN ZAMBIA

BackgroundNchelenge district is a holoendemic malaria transmission zone in northern Zambia. The district occurs in a region characterised by a mix of water, marshes, islands and lagoons presenting a uniquely...

Searching for putative avian malaria vectors in a Seasonally Dry Tropical Forest in Brazil.

BackgroundHaemosporidian parasites of the genera Plasmodium and Haemoproteus can have detrimental effects on individual birds and populations. Despite recent investigations into the distribution and richness of these parasites and their vertebrate hosts, little is known about their dipteran vectors. The Neotropics has the highest diversity of mosquitoes in the world, but few studies have tried to identify vectors in this area, hampering the understanding of the ecology of avian malaria in the highly diverse Neotropical environments.MethodsShannon traps and active collection were used to capture 27,110 mosquitoes in a Seasonally Dry Tropical Forest in southeastern Brazil, a highly endangered ecosystem.ResultsWe screened 17,619 mosquito abdomens from 12 different species and several unidentified specimens of Culex, grouped into 1,913 pools, for the presence of haemosporidians. Two pools (out of 459) of the mosquito Mansonia titillans and one pool (out of 29) of Mansonia pseudotitillans were positive for Plasmodium parasites, with the detection of a new parasite lineage in the former species. Detected Plasmodium lineages were distributed in three different clades within the phylogenetic tree revealing that Mansonia mosquitoes are potential vectors of genetically distant parasites. Two pools of Culex spp. (out of 43) were positive for Plasmodium gallinaceum and closely related lineages. We found a higher abundance of these putative vectors in pasture areas, but they were also distributed in areas at intermediate and late successional stages. One pool of the mosquito Psorophora discrucians (out of 173) was positive for Haemoproteus.ConclusionsThe occurrence of different Plasmodium lineages in Mansonia mosquitoes indicates that this genus encompasses potential vectors of avian malaria parasites in Brazil, even though we did not find positive thoraces among the samples tested. Additional evidence is required to assign the role of Mansonia mosquitoes in avian malaria transmission and further studies will add information about evolutionary and ecological aspects of avian haemosporidia and untangle the diversity of their vectors in Brazil.

Discovery of Novel Viruses in Mosquitoes from the Zambezi Valley of Mozambique

Mosquitoes carry a wide variety of viruses that can cause vector-borne infectious diseases and affect both human and veterinary public health. Although Mozambique can be considered a hot spot for emerging infectious diseases due to factors such as a rich vector population and a close vector/human/wildlife interface, the viral flora in mosquitoes have not previously been investigated. In this study, viral metagenomics was employed to analyze the viral communities in Culex and Mansonia mosquitoes in the Zambezia province of Mozambique. Among the 1.7 and 2.6 million sequences produced from the Culex and Mansonia samples, respectively, 3269 and 983 reads were classified as viral sequences. Viruses belonging to the Flaviviridae, Rhabdoviridae and Iflaviridae families were detected, and different unclassified single- and double-stranded RNA viruses were also identified. A near complete genome of a flavivirus, tentatively named Cuacua virus, was obtained from the Mansonia mosquitoes. Phylogenetic analysis of this flavivirus, using the NS5 amino acid sequence, showed that it grouped with ‘insect-specific’ viruses and was most closely related to Nakiwogo virus previously identified in Uganda. Both mosquito genera had viral sequences related to Rhabdoviruses, and these were most closely related to Culex tritaeniorhynchus rhabdovirus (CTRV). The results from this study suggest that several viruses specific for insects belonging to, for example, the Flaviviridae and Rhabdoviridae families, as well as a number of unclassified RNA viruses, are present in mosquitoes in Mozambique.

Prospects, drawbacks and future needs of xenomonitoring for the endpoint evaluation of lymphatic filariasis elimination programs in Africa.

Lymphatic filariasis (LF) is a debilitating disease caused by Wuchereria bancrofti, Brugia malayi and B. timori parasitic worms and transmitted by Culex, Anopheles, Aedes and Mansonia mosquitoes. Mass drug administration (MDA) to reduce the infection levels in the human population is the key component of LF elimination programs. However, the potential of the use of vector control is gaining recognition as a tool that can complement MDA. The method of monitoring the parasites in mosquito vectors is known as xenomonitoring. Monitoring of vectors for filarial larvae is an important assessment tool for LF elimination programs. Xenomonitoring has the advantage of giving a real-time estimate of disease, because the pre-patent period may take months after infection in humans. It is a non-invasive sensitive tool for assessing the presence of LF in endemic areas. The aim of this review is to discuss the prospects, challenges and needs of xenomonitoring as a public health tool, in the post-MDA evaluation activities of national LF elimination programs.