Mandatory Renewable Energy Research Articles

The expressive function of public policy: renewable energy mandates signal social norms.

Addressing collective action problems requires individuals to engage in coordinated and cooperative behaviours. Existing research suggests that individuals' propensity to work together depends in part on their belief that others support the cause in question. People form their expectations about prevalent beliefs and behaviours from many sources. To date, most of the literature has focussed on how socialnorm perceptions are inferred from peers or summary statistics. We explore an understudied source of norm information: the passage of policies by democratically elected institutions. Institutional signals, such as the setting of defaults, national laws or policies, can act as coordination devices, signalling or prescribing social norms to large audiences. However, their expressive function is likely to depend on whether the institution is seen as accountable to the public. In two highly powered, pre-registered experiments (N = 11 636), we examine the role of policy signals as a source of social norm information. In Study 1, Americans randomly assigned to learn that their state passed a 100% renewable energy mandate believe that a greater percentage of their state's residents support such a mandate. In Study 2, we replicate this effect for national policy and show that the influence is moderated by information about whether the government represents the will of the people. This article is part of the theme issue 'Social norm change: drivers and consequences'.

A Review of Isobutanol as a Fuel for Internal Combustion Engines

Isobutanol, one of the four isomers of butanol (C4H9OH), possesses some favorable properties that make it an attractive fuel for internal combustion engines. For instance, when compared to ethanol, isobutanol features a higher heating value and lower hygroscopicity (which prevents corrosion and enables it to be transported via pipelines). Moreover, its addition to gasoline does not distort the fuel blend’s vapor pressure to the same extent as ethanol does. All of this while having a high octane rating. Those advantages over ethanol suggest that isobutanol has the potential to be used as a gasoline oxygenate or even as a neat fuel. Furthermore, the advances made in biotechnology have enabled isobutanol to be produced from biomass more efficiently, allowing it to be used in compliance with existing renewable energy mandates. This article reviews some of the relevant literature dedicated to isobutanol as a motor fuel, covering its merits and drawbacks. Several studies on its combustion characteristics are also discussed. Most of the included literature refers to the use of isobutanol in spark-ignition (SI) engines, as its properties naturally lend themselves to such applications. However, isobutanol’s utilization in diesel engines is also addressed, along with a couple of low-temperature combustion examples.

Punctuated shifts or incremental change? A comparative analysis of U.S. state-level renewable energy mandates

In the U.S., regulatory policies designed to reduce carbon dioxide emissions from the electric power sector have primarily occurred through the adoption of state-level renewable portfolio standards (RPS). In recent years several states have amended existing renewable energy mandates to establish targets that require 100 % of electricity to be generated from zero-emissions energy sources while, in others, renewable energy objectives have remained stagnant. This study applies Punctuated Equilibrium Theory (PET) to assess whether recent modifications to state-level renewable energy objectives are indicative of punctuated shifts or incremental change. Examination of the dynamics of RPS policy change occurs through a distribution analysis of amendments to renewable energy objectives. The PET framework is then applied to two case studies to examine the factors that contribute to policy stasis and punctuated change to renewable energy targets. The quantitative analysis demonstrates that state-level renewable energy amendments reflect the characteristics of policy change described by PET. The qualitative analysis validates the applicability of the PET framework to understand and explain the dynamics of policy change within this policy subsystem.

Advancing bipartisan decarbonization policies: lessons from state-level successes and failures.

U.S. political polarization is at a high point since the Civil War, and is a significant barrier to coordinated national action addressing climate change. To examine where common ground may exist, here we comprehensively review and characterize successes and failures of recent state-level decarbonization legislation, focusing especially on bipartisanship. We analyze 418 major state-government-enacted bills and 450 failed bills from 2015 to 2020, as well as the political contexts in which they were passed or defeated. We use bivariate analyses and regressions to explore correlations and partial correlations between the policy characteristics and political contexts of bills, and their passage or failure, their bipartisanship, and vote shares they received. Key results include (i) nearly one-third of these state-level decarbonization bills were passed by Republican-controlled governments. (ii) Bipartisan or Republican co-sponsors disproportionately passed financial incentives for renewable energy, and legislation that expands consumer or business choices in context of decarbonization goals; Democrat-only co-sponsors disproportionately passed bills that restricted consumer and business choice, such as mandatory Renewable Energy and Efficiency Portfolio Standards (REEPS) and emissions standards. (iii) Bipartisan bills were disproportionately proposed in “divided” states, did not restrict consumer and business choice, had environmental justice components framed economically, and lacked environmental justice components framed either using academic social-justice jargon or non-neutrally with respect to immutable characteristics such as race. (iv) Bills that expand consumer or business choice were disproportionately enacted. Though climate change is a polarized issue, our results provide tangible insights for future bipartisan successes.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10584-022-03335-w.

Carbon pricing and supporting policy tools for deep decarbonization; case of electricity generation of Sri Lanka

This study internalizes carbon pricing and other regulatory policy tools for decarbonizing the electricity generation mix of Sri Lanka. Carbon Pricing is shifted to the supply side as a decision-making tool. We consider $10/tCO2, $20/tCO2, $30/tCO2, $44/tCO2, $130/tCO2, and $297/tCO2 as potential carbon prices. Other regulatory policy tools, such as mandatory renewable energy (RE) development, fuel switching, fossil fuel phasing out, fossil fuel development moratoriums, and mandatory RE utilization, are included as possible supporting tools. Three capacity-development scenarios and three optimization models with three objective functions are designed and implemented in the General Algebraic Modeling System (GAMS). Six policy options are presented for the Sri Lankan context considering cost, emission, and diversification. Results suggest a carbon price that falls between $10/tCO2-$44/tCO2 as suitable for Sri Lanka. The study contributes to the ongoing debate on the effectiveness of carbon pricing by empirically testing the effectiveness of carbon prices in the electricity generation planning of a developing country. The findings support the emerging consensus of adopting other regulatory policy tools along with carbon prices to achieve deep decarbonization. The study also assesses the role LNG could play in a developing country’s electricity generation mix. We recommend transitioning from coal to LNG as an intermediate decarbonization policy option until the RE capacities are developed to make the near-zero emission mix a reality.

Volatility spillovers between food and fuel markets: Do administrative regulations affect the transmission?

The rapid growth of biofuel production has led to the food versus fuel dilemma, with studies showing that the use of crops as inputs drives up prices, volatility and volatility spillovers in food and fuel markets. Renewable identification numbers (RINs) are fuel credits that track and enforce compliance with U.S. renewable energy mandates, and may ameliorate price volatility disruptions and reduce spillovers. However, existing studies have largely ignored the relationship between RINs and price volatility. Using weekly spot price data over the period 2008–2018, we examine the impact of RINs on the volatility and market interdependence between the corn, ethanol, and oil markets. Through an asymmetric multivariate GARCH model, we find that the RIN market contributes to a reduction of volatility in the ethanol market, and also reduces volatility spillovers between corn and ethanol markets. Lastly, RINs weaken the market interdependence between ethanol and corn and ethanol and oil.

Exploring Opportunities and Challenges of Solar PV Power under Carbon Peak Scenario in China: A PEST Analysis

China has experienced rapid social and economic development in the past 40 years. However, excessive consumption of fossil fuel energy has caused an energy shortage and led to severe environmental pollution. To achieve sustainable development, China is striving to transform its growth mode. Adopting renewable energy (RE) including solar photovoltaic (PV) power is an effective measure. How to promote the further development of solar PV power under the scenario of China’s aspirational target of carbon peak by 2030 and 20% RE ratio in the energy mix remains a theme that need to be addressed. This paper analyzes the potential opportunities and challenges confronting solar PV power in China. The analysis covers the dimensions of political, economic, social, and technological (PEST). The results revealed a significant prospect for the further deployment of solar PV power in the coming decades. The aggressive estimated installed capacity of solar PV power is expected to reach 80+ GW annually. To successfully achieve the goal of 80+ GW, barriers that hinder the further development of solar PV power have to be eliminated. Suggestions for policymakers include maintaining enforceability and continuity of policies, favorable financial supports, mandatory RE quotas for all parties, and supporting fundamental R&D. Suggestions for the solar PV industry include full utilization of integrated applications, set up an after-sales service network, collaborative innovation among the industry chain, and engaging in storage and hydrogen technology. The findings are greatly beneficial for policymakers and the solar PV industry.

Advancing bipartisan decarbonization policies: Lessons from state-level successes and failures

U.S. political polarization is at a high point since the Civil War, and is a significant barrier to coordinated national action addressing climate change. Studies of intergroup conflict suggest that collaborations pursuing shared goals can reduce polarization (while advancing the goals). In this spirit, we comprehensively review and characterize successes and failures of recent state-level decarbonization legislation, focusing on opportunities for bipartisanship. We analyze 381 major state-government-enacted bills and 374 failed bills from 2015-2020, as well as the political contexts in which they were passed or defeated. We use bivariate analyses and regressions to explore correlations and partial correlations between the policy characteristics and political contexts of bills, and: their passage or failure, their bipartisanship, and vote shares they received. Key results include: (i) Nearly one third of these state-level decarbonization bills were passed by Republican-controlled governments. (ii) Bipartisan or Republican co-sponsors disproportionately passed voluntary Property Assessed Clean Energy (PACE) programs, financial incentives for renewable energy, and legislation that expands consumer or business choices in context of decarbonization goals; Democrat-only sponsors disproportionately passed mandatory Renewable Energy and Efficiency Portfolio Standards (REEPS) and emissions standards. (iii) Bills proposed in ‘purple’ states, and those lacking environmental justice components framed using academic social-justice jargon or non-neutrally with respect to immutable characteristics such as race, were disproportionately enacted and bipartisan. Bills that expand consumer or business choice were also enacted more often than those that restrict choice. Though climate change is a polarized issue, our results provide tangible insights for future bipartisan successes.

An Application of Quadratic EKC model: Energy Use, Economic Development, and Environmental Quality for Thailand

This study examines the validation the relationship of environmental and energy for Thailand. Further this study examined the impact of economic growth, non-renewable and renewable energy and FDI on environment, with the help of time series data from 1990 to 2018 with ecological damage indicator, i.e., emission of carbon dioxide (CO2). This study applied Autoregressive (ARDL) Distributed Lag model for testing the cointegration in the model. In the long run, the results of this study confirm the existence of cointegration in the model. However, the negative effect of growth on the environment confirms the existence of the Kuznets Environmental Curve (EKC), which means that economic growth harms Thailand’s environment. Renewable energy and foreign direct investment are the key aspects that reduce environmental degradation in Thailand during the study period. Therefore, the government must redouble its efforts to reduce carbon dioxide CO2 emissions, perhaps through regulatory intervention or mandatory renewable energy applications for individual household and industrial segments. For example, the manufacturing sectors, iron, and steel must prioritize, reducing the high non-renewable energy consumption for those which are renewable. The government must introduce specific measures and campaigns for environmental protection for future generations as well as introduce taxes for polluters. Another relevant recommendation is to create an industry that relies on low energy consumption compared to high productivity levels.

Modeling and Load Flow Analysis of a Microgrid Laboratory.

Microgrids-miniature versions of the electrical grid are becoming increasingly more popular as advancements in technologies, renewable energy mandates, and decreased costs drive communities to adopt them. The modern microgrid has capabilities of generating, distributing, and regulating the flow of electricity, capable of operating in both grid-connected and islanded (disconnected) conditions. This paper utilizes ETAP software in the analysis, simulation, and development of a lab-scale microgrid located at Cal Poly State University. Microprocessor-based relays are heavily utilized in both the ETAP model and hardware implementation of the system. Three case studies were studied and simulated to investigate electric power system load flow analysis of the Cal Poly microgrid. Results were compared against hardware test measurements and showed overall agreement. Slight discrepancies were observed in the simulation results due mainly to the non-ideality of actual hardware components and lab equipment.

Punctuating the equilibrium: A lens to understand energy and environmental policy changes

Punctuating the equilibrium: A lens to understand energy and environmental policy changes

The economic geography of variable renewable energy and impacts of trade formulations for renewable mandates

This paper examines electricity market responses to flexibility provisions in prospective renewable energy mandates and the geographical incidence of impacts. Using an integrated model of electric sector investments and operations with detailed spatial and temporal resolutions, the analysis demonstrates how renewable mandate trade formulations for electricity and renewable energy certificates can materially impact power sector outcomes like capacity planning decisions, compliance costs, CO2 emissions, and the regional distribution of renewable development. There are substantial welfare gains, up to $84 billion in present value terms through 2050, from inter-regional electricity and permit trade (and costs of market fragmentation), but the degree and direction of impact depend on region-specific considerations. Allowing permit trade encourages greater deployment of wind and solar in regions with favorable investment environments and resources, but renewable capacity additions are appreciable in all regions since diminishing marginal returns and transmission constraints limit the benefits of overdevelopment in any single region. Model results suggest that regions will likely find it beneficial to generate at least half of their renewable mandate compliance obligations through in-state resources and that most of the economic benefits from inter-regional REC exchange can be captured with a relatively modest amount of trading flexibility. Trade flexibility is shown to have minimal impacts on CO2 emissions leakage nationally.

Indicators of environmental performance to assess wood-based bioenergy production: A case study in Northern Italy

Increased environmental concerns, mainly related to fossil fuels consumption and global climate change, have drawn the attention to the dependence of human society on energy supply. As a consequence of EU Directives setting mandatory renewable energy targets up to 2020, member states are boosting renewable energy and bioenergy production. The use of wood biomass for bioenergy production can entail important benefits, including improved energy security due to a smaller dependence on fossil fuel supply, mitigation of climate impact, and revitalization of rural economies connected to new job opportunities. Nevertheless, bioenergy production also involves environmental and socio-economic concerns. The environmental, economic, and social sustainability of bioenergy production needs to be assessed through a set of multicriteria indicators. In this study, Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) was used to explore the environmental performance of bioenergy production in an Alpine area of Northern Italy. In particular, the environmental impacts of a wood-based bioenergy plant utilizing local residues from wood industries and forestry operations were investigated. The amount of CO2-eq emissions (0.25 kg CO2-eq kWh−1) and the fossil demand (0.09 kg oil-eq kWh−1) calculated for the investigated bioenergy plant resulted lower than the values characterizing fossil fuels-based power plants. Yet, the environmental performance of the investigated bioenergy plant was affected by the consumption of methane, still used in the plant to cover peak loads. The results showed that the use of local wood biomass in the investigated Alpine area is a desirable option for recycling wood residues while supporting heat and electricity production. The findings of this study can support local managers and policy makers committed to plan and implement renewable energy strategies and circular economy patterns. In addition, they can be useful to assess the potential upscale of this bioenergy option at regional and national level considering the availability of wood residues (from forestry and industrial sector) while verifying possible operational constraints at larger scales. Future studies could also integrate environmental accounting with other assessment methods exploring the economic profitability and social desirability of wood-based bioenergy production in mountain areas characterized by low population density and large forest cover.

Co-Optimization Scheme for Distributed Energy Resource Planning in Community Microgrids

Microgrids with distributed energy resources are being favored in various communities to lower the dependence on utility-supplied energy and cut the CO2 emissions from coal-based power plants. This paper presents a co-optimization strategy for distributed energy resource planning to minimize total annualized cost at the maximal fuel savings. Furthermore, the proposed scheme aids the community microgrids in satisfying the requirements of U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) and state renewable energy mandates. The method of Lagrange multipliers is employed to maximize fuel savings by satisfying Karush-Kuhn-Tucker conditions. With the Fourier transform and particle swarm optimization, the right mix of distributed energy resources is determined to decrease the annualized cost. A case study to test the proposed scheme for a community microgrid is presented. To validate its effectiveness, an economic justification of the solution and its comparison with HOMER Pro are also illustrated.

Fuel Subsidy Pass-Through and Market Structure: Evidence from the Renewable Fuel Standard

The Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS) is among the largest renewable energy mandates in the world. The policy is enforced using tradeable credits that implicitly subsidize biofuels and tax fossil fuels. The RFS relies on these taxes and subsidies to be passed through to consumers to stimulate demand for biofuels and decrease demand for gasoline and diesel. We study pass-through of the RFS subsidy for E85, a high-ethanol blend fuel, to retail fuel prices using weekly prices from over 450 fuel stations in the United States. We find that, on average, half to three-quarters of the E85 subsidy is passed through to consumers. However, pass-through takes 6–8 weeks, and station-level pass-through rates exhibit substantial heterogeneity, with the retailers’ market structure influencing both the speed and level of pass-through.

Looking the wrong way: Bias, renewable electricity, and energy modelling in the United States

The United States Energy Information Administration releases an AEO (Annual Energy Outlook) projecting future supply, demand, and resources for energy and electricity in the U.S. It is widely relied upon for policymaking. This study assesses twelve years of these projections of generation and capacity for six classes of renewable technologies. It finds consistent under projections for most renewable energy types in the mid- and long-term, due to inaccuracies, limitations, and inconsistencies in the underlying model. It identifies and evaluates five hypotheses that may explain such inaccuracy: inaccurate modelling of state renewable energy mandates, expiration of renewable tax credits, flaws in modelling structure, a biomass co-firing assumption, and capital cost projections. Unless AEO's projections of renewable energy are greatly improved, the reliability of its sector-wide electricity projections is inherently low. Key modifications suggested by this study include: fully valuing financial and non-financial benefits of renewables, improving cost innovation expectations for renewable energy, and, perhaps most importantly, properly modelling state renewable energy mandates.

Switchgrass and Prairie Cordgrass Response to Foliar- and Soil-Applied Herbicides

Perennial grasses are expected to comprise a substantial portion of the lignocellulosic biomass to meet renewable energy mandates in the U.S. in the next decade. As many warm-season grasses are slow to establish from seed, plantings are often compromised by weed interference during the establishment year. Greenhouse experiments were conducted to determine the tolerance of switchgrass and prairie cordgrass to several herbicides applied PRE or POST (at four different growth stages). Preemergence atrazine at rates ≤ 1.684 kg ai ha−1in switchgrass and quinclorac at rates ≤ 0.279 kg ai ha−1in prairie cordgrass did not significantly reduce emergence, plant height, or biomass yield 8 wk after treatment. When treatments were applied at the two- to three-leaf stage, only atrazine (≤ 0.123 kg ai ha−1) did not reduce switchgrass fresh weight and only 2,4-D ester (≤ 0.533 kg ae ha−1), nicosulfuron (0.018 kg ai ha−1), and quinclorac (0.140 kg ha−1) did not significantly reduce prairie cordgrass yield. Phytotoxic effects decreased for all herbicides with increasing growth stage at the time of treatment for both species. All evaluated herbicides were safe with respect to biomass yield on the respective grasses when applied at the latest growth stage (approximately five-leaf stage). These results show that viable PRE and POST herbicides are available for weed control during establishment of switchgrass and prairie cordgrass; however, all evaluated herbicides would likely reduce biomass yield in a mixture planting of both grasses.

Econometric analysis of Australian emissions markets and electricity prices

Emissions trading schemes aim to reduce the emissions in certain pollutants using a market based scheme where participants can buy and sell permits for these emissions. This paper analyses the efficiency of the two largest schemes in Australia, the NSW Greenhouse Gas Abatement Scheme and the Mandatory Renewable Energy Trading Scheme, through their effect on the electricity prices from 2004 to 2010. We use a long run structural modelling technique for the first time on this market. It provides a practical long-run approach to structural relationships which enable the determination of the effectiveness of the theoretical expectations of these schemes. The generalised forecast error variance decomposition analysis finds that both schemes׳ emissions prices have little effect on electricity prices. Generalised impulse response function analysis support this finding indicating that when shocks are applied to electricity by the two schemes it returns to equilibrium very quickly. This indicates that these schemes are not having the effect anticipated in their legislation.

Involuntary Cotenants: Eminent Domain and Energy & Communications Infrastructure Growth

The spread of renewable energy mandates, new discoveries of unconventional oil and gas, and the need to harden and upgrade telecommunications infrastructure will lead to expansions in large infrastructure easements over the next decade. Many of these easements will be taken by eminent domain. In this paper we examine the problems posed by this involuntary creation of co-ownership of land. Existing eminent domain laws are insufficient to address the problems created because they allow the courts to vary only one term: price. Given difficulty in pricing many of the other terms to the easements (e.g. indemnification agreements for landowners, controlling impacts on hunting leases, or compliance efforts to control invasive species), reforms are necessary to allow courts to substitute for the bargaining process that eminent domain short circuits.

The fuel market effects of biofuel policies and implications for regulations based on lifecycle emissions

The absence of a globally-consistent and binding commitment to reducing greenhouse emissions provides a rationale for partial policies, such as renewable energy mandates, product emission standards, etc to target lifecycle emissions of the regulated products or services. While appealing in principle, regulation of lifecycle emissions presents several practical challenges. Using biofuels as an illustrative example, we highlight some outstanding issues in the design and implementation of life cycle-based policies and discuss potential remedies. We review the literature on emissions due to price effects in fuel markets, which are akin to emissions due to indirect land use change, but are, unlike the latter, ignored under all current life cycle emissions-based regulations. We distinguish the current approaches to regulating indirect emissions into hard and soft approaches and discuss their implications.