Management Of Plant Invasions Research Articles

Time pattern variation of alien plant introductions in an insular biodiversity hotspot: the Balearic Islands as a case study for the Mediterranean region

Allochthonous plant species are considered among the main environmental issues worldwide, being especially accused in the Mediterranean basin. The present study aims to update Balearic Alien Flora and discuss its time and spatial variation and invasiveness. Information regarding allochthonous plant records of the Balearic Islands were gathered and analysed based on published checklists and online databases. For each species several general traits were assigned based on previous references to characterise the alien Balearic Flora. Records of allochthonous species between 1827 and 2023 indicate that Alien Balearic Flora is composed of 624 taxa recorded unevenly among islands, with lower records in smaller islands. Alien flora is mainly composed of therophytes and phanerophytes being held mainly in human related habitats. Introduction pathway is mainly ornamental, with over 50% of taxa entering through gardening and horticultural practices. Main biogeographical origins are American, Mediterranean, Euroasiatic and Cape origins. Invasive status of Balearic alien flora shows that 44% of all taxa can be regarded as casual, while 35% are naturalised, and 17% can be considered invasive, being the latter increased in smaller islands. Time variations trends starting mainly in the 70 s and predictive models show that alien species increase exponentially, being the most represented taxa from synanthropic habitats, introduced as ornamentals, lianas, phanerophytes and therophytes from Cactaceae, Asteraceae and Leguminosae families. The results of the present study can serve as a model to facilitate the scientifically informed decision making and management of plant invasions both in the Balearic Islands and other continental insular systems and Mediterranean regions.

The assessment and management of plant invasions with Unmanned Aerial Vehicles. The Yucca gloriosa case, Italy

Invasive Alien Plants (IAPs) represent a severe threat to biodiversity and the functioning of crucial ecosystems such as coastal dunes. In this work, the Yucca gloriosa invasion along Italy’s Mediterranean coastal dunes was used as a case study to explore the potential of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs). High-resolution images were collected during different seasons (spring: pre-flowering and fall: flowering stage) for detecting, mapping, and managing this IAP. Due to its peculiar foliar characteristics, Y. gloriosa is particularly suitable for assessing this UAV technique. We suggest springtime for data collection because light conditions are ideal and shading effects are minimal. Moreover, long-term dynamics of the Y. gloriosa invasion after plant removal over the last 10–15 years were investigated. The information presented here is the first step in the future development of an early detection program to manage with this IAP problem in the study area.

Early detection, herbicide resistance screening, and integrated management of invasive plant species: a review.

Invasive plant species (IPS) are often considered weeds that cause high yield losses in crops, negatively affect the environment, and disrupt certain ecosystem services. The negative impact of IPS on biodiversity is increasing and disturbing native vegetation. The management of plant invasions can be divided in two phases (before and after invasion). Prior to introduction it is crucial to develop the knowledge base (biology, ecology, distribution, impact, management) on IPS, prevention measures and risk assessment. After introduction if eradication fails, the monitoring and the integrated management of IPS are imperative to prevent the naturalization and further dispersal. This review uses two major invasive weed species (Amaranthus palmeri S. Wats. and Solanum elaeagnifolium Cav.) as case studies to propose a framework for early detection, rapid herbicide resistance screening, and integrated management. The holistic framework that is presented exploits recent: (i) novel detection tools, (ii) rapid tests and assays for herbicide resistance, and (iii) biology, ecology, distribution traits, and management tools for the IPS. Farmers, advisors, researchers, and policymakers need briefing on IPS growth dynamics, adaptability rates, and response to conventional and novel treatments to prevent new invasions, eradicate isolated stands, and mitigate the impact of invasive weed species in the long term. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

The current status of the plant invasions in Belarus

Abstract This article provides a review of the current status of plant invasions in Belarus. As a result of this research into the alien flora between 2008 and 2020 a list of 52 invasive plant species that threaten biodiversity, human health, and economic has been compiled. About 300 taxa of non-native plants are currently classified as potentially invasive. The list of invasive plant species has been proposed in this article in accordance with trends in the invasive processes is the basis for the monitoring and management of plant invasions in Belarus. The preliminary data from the previous field seasons showed a significant increase in the population abundance and distribution of Swida alba, Rudbeckia laciniata and Artemisia abrotanum. Enrichment of the flora occurs due to the introduction of aggressive plants. Hybridization between native and alien plant species leads to the appearance of hybrids, which often have an invasive potential, and can invade not only disturbed habitats but also natural plant communities. The invasive properties, expansion, and aggressive behavior of these invasive plants of the alien flora of Belarus has led to significant, often irreversible, changes in the natural vegetation and vegetation cover. Invasive species such as Solidago canadensis, S. gigantea, Echynocystis lobata, Impatiens glandulifera are marked by rapid expansion over past decades, and Heracleum sosnowskyi, Solidago canadensis, S. gigantea, Echinocystis lobata, Impatiens parviflora, Acer negundo, Robinia pseudoacacia, Bidens frondosa, have invaded more recently.

An analysis of travel reports of the Finnish botanical expeditions to Russian Lapland (Murmansk Region and northern Karelia) in 1861 and 1863

Finnish botanical expeditions which were made to Russian Lapland (present‐day Murmansk Region and northern Karelia, Russia) in 1861 and 1863 published travel reports with preliminary information including numerous floristic novelties and phytogeographical observations, but they have been overlooked in present‐day studies. Two reports appeared in print, by Gustav Selin on the expedition made in 1861, and by Nils Isak Fellman on the expedition made in 1863. We analysed the records of vascular plant species published in these reports in order to trace and evaluate first records and localities of rare and legally protected species on the basis of herbarium vouchers kept at H. In spite of high self‐claims, Selin actually only reported nine species new to present‐day Murmansk Region and one species new to Republic of Karelia, and four species of vascular plants that are currently under legal protection in Murmansk Region, whereas Fellman reported 11 species new to Murmansk Region and five species new to Karelia, with 34 species under legal protection in Murmansk Region. First records of alien plants were seven species from Selin and four species from Fellman. These records brought the contemporary floristic knowledge in Russian Lapland to 504 species of native plants (50% of the current total) and 54 species of alien plants (11% of the current total). Fellman's report included the first phytogeographical observations from the Kola Peninsula, with the first botanical limits observed, and the first descriptions of key botanical territories which are currently under strict protection. This study contributes to botanical history, plant protection and management of plant invasions in Murmansk Region.

Corrigendum: Geographic population structure in an outcrossing plant invasion after centuries of cultivation and recent founding events.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1093/aobpla/ply020.][This corrects the article DOI: 10.1093/aobpla/ply020.].

Patterns of alien plant diversity in the urban landscapes of global biodiversity hotspots: a case study from the Himalayas

In an age of Anthropocene, the urban landscapes are recognised as the ‘hotspots’ of human-mediated alien species introductions. As the cities provide an ideal natural experimental system to investigate the patterns of alien plant diversity in urban landscapes, the present study aimed to unravel the taxonomic, biogeographic and ecological patterns of alien flora of Srinagar—one of the largest urban centres in the Himalayan biodiversity hotspot. The alien flora of Srinagar comprises 325 species, constituting ca.35% of total flora of the city. Out of the 325 alien species documented, 157 species (43%) were recorded to be under cultivation, while 168 species (57%) were growing in the wild (i.e., outside cultivation); those growing in the wild, in turn, comprised 110 cultivation escapes and 58 accidentally introduced plant species. Biogeographically, two-third of the alien plant diversity reported from Srinagar is native to Asia-Temperate. This indicates that climatic similarity between Asia-Temperate and Kashmir Himalayas facilitate in flourishing similar floristic diversity. The study highlights a relatively higher proportion of herbaceous growth form in the aliens growing in the wild (80%) than those under cultivation (43%). Similarly, 82% of the alien species under cultivation had a perennial life span, but those growing in the wild were dominated by annuals (44%). Currently, 45 species are growing as casuals and 124 species are naturalised (including 105 naturalised non-invasive and 19 naturalised invasive). Along the continuum of casual-naturalised-invasive categories, the contribution of cultivation escapes and accidently introduced aliens contrastingly shows decreasing and increasing trends respectively. Interestingly, the results revealed that the human practice of stopping cultivation of alien escapes increased rapidly as we move along the continuum. Thus, the present study has investigated the patterns of alien plant diversity in the urban landscape of Srinagar, and the results obtained offer scientific insights toward better scientific understanding and management of plant invasions in this Himalayan city, with wider policy implications for neighbouring urbanised landscapes in the Himalayas and other mountainous regions across the world.

Examining the role of landscape structure and dynamics in alien plant invasion from urban Mediterranean coastal habitats

This paper aims to disentangle the effects of both current landscape structure and recent land use-change on alien plant invasion in urban Mediterranean coastal habitats. Patches of four habitat types (rock outcrops, sand dunes, scrublands and forests) of different sizes and surrounding landscape compositions were selected along the coast of the Metropolitan Region of Barcelona (NE Spain). Attributes of habitat patches, historical (1956) and current landscape composition around them, land-cover changes (1956–2005) and other environmental and geographic factors within these patches were obtained. The association of these attributes with alien plant richness, abundance and composition was investigated using GLM and CCA. Alien species richness was mostly explained by patch size and shape and built-up area proportion from 1956 and 2005 in a 50m buffer around patches. Alien species abundance was mostly related to patch shape, temperature, rainfall, land-cover changes within patches and cropland cover of 1956 in a 50m buffer around patches. Alien species composition was primary related to habitat type, temperature, land-cover changes within patches and the composition of the surrounding landscape. Results suggest that landscape factors affect alien species richness and abundance differently, which are indicative of species colonization and spread, respectively. Landscape history positively affects both colonization and spread, with evidence for a colonization credit related with past urban cover, and the association between recent patch dynamics and present aliens spread. Results highlight the importance of including landscape structure and dynamics in the management of plant invasions in coastal Mediterranean habitats, especially in metropolitan regions.

Environment and dispersal paths override life strategies and residence time in determining regional patterns of invasion by alien plants

Abstract We describe a novel dissimilarity framework to analyze spatial patterns of species diversity and illustrate it with alien plant invasions in Northern Portugal. We used this framework to test the hypothesis that patterns of alien invasive plant species richness and composition are differently affected by differences in climate, land use and landscape connectivity ( i.e. Geographic distance as a proxy and vectorial objects that facilitate dispersal such as roads and rivers) between pairs of localities at the regional scale. We further evaluated possible effects of plant life strategies (Grime's C-S-R) and residence time. Each locality consisted of a 1 km 2 landscape mosaic in which all alien invasive species were recorded by visiting all habitat types. Multi-model inference revealed that dissimilarity in species richness is more influenced by environmental distance (particularly climate), whereas geographic distance (proxies for dispersal limitations) is more important to explain dissimilarity in species composition, with a prevailing role for ecotones and roads. However, only minor differences were found in the responses of the three C-S-R strategies. Some effect of residence time was found, but only for dissimilarity in species richness. Our results also indicated that environmental conditions ( e.g. climate conditions) limit the number of alien species invading a given site, but that the presence of dispersal corridors determines the paths of invasion and therefore the pool of species reaching each site. As geographic distances ( e.g. ecotones and roads) tend to explain invasion at our regional scale highlights the need to consider the management of alien invasions in the context of integrated landscape planning. Alien species management should include (but not be limited to) the mitigation of dispersal pathways along linear infrastructures. Our results therefore highlight potentially useful applications of the novel multimodel framework to the anticipation and management of plant invasions.

Climate and exotic pasture area in landscape determines invasion of forest fragments by two invasive grasses

To date, there has been a focus on biological aspects of invasion rather than landscape-scale processes within human-modified landscapes. Applying a multi-scale approach may improve predictive models of invasion in fragmented landscapes as well as management. We tested a priori models of the relative importance of landscape (10 000 to 30 000 ha), site-scale (<0·3 ha) factors and climate gradients, and their interactions, on the cover of exotic grasses in forest fragments. We tested the models for two exotic pasture grasses Cenchrus ciliaris and Panicum maximum in fragmented agricultural landscapes of subtropical eastern Australia. Mixed-effect models were applied to quantify the multi-scale effects of land use, forest area and fragmentation, vegetation structure, soil and climate attributes and their interactions on the ground cover of the two exotic grasses. We used model averaging to account for model and parameter uncertainty and tested for spatial autocorrelation and the model fit in model residuals. There was strong evidence that the area of exotic pasture grass in the landscape and climate gradients had a strong influence on cover observed at the site scale, but the climate influence was species specific. Cenchrus ciliaris cover was higher in forest sites within landscapes converted to exotic pastures and with high mean minimum temperatures and sites with low canopy cover. In contrast, P. maximum cover was primarily influenced by high mean annual rainfall, with moderate positive effects from area of exotic pasture in the landscape and high minimum temperatures. Synthesis and applications. This study highlights several key issues that need to be considered when prioritizing management of invasive species in fragmented landscapes. First, the propagule supply in the landscape and climate gradients are key factors influencing the spread of exotic grasses into forest fragments. Second, managing canopy cover is critical to enhancing C. ciliaris invasion resistance, but not for P. maximum. We conclude that a multi-scale approach provides the conceptual and applied basis for an improved understanding and management of plant invasions in fragmented landscapes.

A new comprehensive database of alien plant species in Chile based on herbarium records

There is an urgent need for comprehensive national databases on alien plant species, especially in developing countries. Despite the fact that plant inva- sions are considered a major threat to biodiversity, they have been poorly studied or not considered a conserva- tion priority in South America. We aim to assess alien plant distribution in Chile, using the first comprehensive public alien plant database, and discuss the implications of using herbarium records to develop national dat- abases of alien plants. We used herbarium records to assemble a comprehensive national database of alien plants. We calculated the number of alien and native species and specimens recorded in each 10 9 10 km cell. We evaluated sampling efforts and tested for relationships between alien and native species collections, as well as other spatial patterns along the latitudinal gradient. Alien and native species richness was positively correlated. Alien plants were mostly collected in central Chile, with few species collected in both the extreme north and south. However, native plants were strongly collected in central Chile, as well as in both extremes of the country. Alien and native plants followed the same pattern of accumulation along the latitudinal gradient, with native plants being relatively more collected than alien plants. Herbarium records provide valuable baseline information to evaluate plant species distribution. However, there are important gaps in this database, (e.g. variable sampling effort for alien and native plants, incomplete information on life- history traits). Given scientists and land managers increasing demand for baseline information and the high cost of collecting such data in developing countries, herbarium records should be used more frequently for research and management of plant invasions.

Plant invasions, restoration, and economics: Perspectives from South African fynbos

Abstract Restoration is gaining importance in the management of plant invasions. As the success of restoration projects is frequently determined by factors other than ecological ones, we explored the ecological and financial feasibility of active restoration on three different invaded sites in South Africa's Cape Floristic Region. The aim of our study was to identify cost-effective ways of restoring functional native ecosystems following invasion by alien plants. Over three years we evaluated different restoration approaches using field trials and experimental manipulations (i.e. mechanical clearing, burning, different soil restoration techniques and sowing of native species) to reduce elevated soil nutrient levels and to re-establish native fynbos communities. Furthermore we investigated the possibility of introducing native fynbos species that can be used for sustainable harvesting to create an incentive for restoration on private land. Diversity and evenness of native plant species increased significantly after restoration at all three sites, whereas cover of alien plants decreased significantly, confirming that active restoration was successful. However, sowing of native fynbos species had no significant effect on native cover, species richness, diversity or evenness in the Acacia thicket and Kikuyu field, implying that the ecosystem was sufficiently resilient to allow autogenic recovery following clearing and burning of the invasive species. Soil restoration treatments resulted in an increase of available nitrogen in the Acacia thicket, but had no significant effects in the Eucalyptus plantation. However, despite elevated available soil nitrogen levels, native species germinated irrespective whether sown or unsown (i.e. regeneration from the soil seed bank). Without active introduction of native species, native grasses, forbs and other shrubs would have dominated, and proteoids and ericoids (the major fynbos growth forms) would have been under-represented. The financial analysis shows that income from flower harvesting following active restoration consistently outweighs income following passive restoration, but that the associated increase in income does not always justify the higher costs. We conclude that active restoration can be effective and financially feasible when compared to passive restoration, depending on the density of invasion. Active restoration of densely invaded sites may therefore only be justifiable if the target area is in a region of high conservation priority.

Weed risk assessment: a way forward or a waste of time?

Summary1. Many alien weeds pose significant environmental and/or economic threats across the globe, and methods to assess the potential risk of species introductions are key components in the management of plant invasions. Three broad approaches have been adopted in weed risk assessment: quantitative statistical models, semi‐quantitative scoring and qualitative expert assessment. Yet, the effectiveness of these different approaches is rarely evaluated. By bringing together perspectives drawn from statistics, complexity theory, bioeconomics and cognitive psychology, this review presents the first interdisciplinary appraisal of whether weed risk assessment is a valuable tool in the management of plant invasions.2. Problems in obtaining an objective measure of the hazards posed by weeds, challenges of predicting complex hierarchical and nonlinear systems, difficulties in quantifying uncertainty and variability, as well as cognitive biases in expert judgement, all limit the utility of current risk assessment approaches. The accuracy of weed risk assessment protocols is usually insufficient, given inherent low base‐rates even when the costs and benefits of decisions are taken into account, and implies that the predictive value of weed risk assessment is questionable.3. Current practices could be improved to address consistent hazard identification, encompass a hierarchy of spatio‐temporal scales, incorporate uncertainty, generate realistic base‐rates, and train risk assessors to limit cognitive biases. However, such refinements may still fail to predict weed risks any better than a knowledge of prior invasion history and quality of climate match.4. Alternative approaches include scenario planning that seeks qualitative inputs regarding hypothetical events to facilitate long‐range planning using multiple alternatives each explicit in their treatment of uncertainty. This represents a change from prevention towards adaptive management where the difficulty in prediction is acknowledged and investment targets early detection, mitigation and management.5. Synthesis and applications. Scenario planning may be particularly suitable for weeds as they can be rapidly surveyed and have sufficiently long lag phases between naturalisation and invasion that early detection is often feasible. If integrated with assessments of ecosystem vulnerability to invasion and interventions to improve ecosystem resilience, it would deliver a robust post‐border approach to invasive plant management. This approach would address threats from new introductions as well as ‘sleeper weeds’ already present in a region.

Invasive plant removal method determines native plant community responses

Summary 1 Restoration of habitats invaded by non-native plants should include both the removal of invasive plants and re-establishment of native plant communities. To develop appropriate restoration strategies and quantify the effects of invasions, experiments that evaluate multiple removal methods and native community responses to those removal methods are needed. 2 We evaluated the response of native plant communities to removal of the invasive grass Microstegium vimineum (Japanese stiltgrass) in eastern forests in the USA. At eight field sites in southern Indiana, we applied three common removal treatments and compared native community responses among treatments and to untreated reference plots. 3 After 2 years of treatment, native community responses to Microstegium removal varied significantly among methods and plant functional groups in autumn 2006. Graminoid richness was greater when the invader was removed with hand-weeding, while graminoid biomass was lower in plots treated with post-emergent herbicide compared to reference plots. Forb richness was greater with hand-weeding and post-emergent herbicide compared to plots treated with post-emergent plus pre-emergent herbicides or untreated plots. Forb biomass was greater across all removal treatments. Overall native community diversity was 24% greater when the invasion was removed with hand-weeding and 21% greater with post-emergent herbicide compared to reference plots. No positive response in plant diversity occurred with post-emergent plus pre-emergent herbicide. 4 By spring 2007, graminoid percentage cover was greater with hand-weeding but not with herbicide treatments compared to untreated plots. However, forb cover was greater across all removal treatments compared to plots where the invader was not removed. The density of native tree seedlings was 123% greater in post-emergent herbicide treated plots than in untreated plots, indicating that the invasion was inhibiting tree recruitment. 5 Synthesis and applications. Our results demonstrate that multiple techniques can be used to control invasive plants but that the responses of native plant communities vary among removal methods. Further, greater native plant diversity and biomass following removal shows that invasions were suppressing native plant communities. Management of plant invasions should consider not only the effectiveness of removal methods but also how different methods influence native plant responses.

Operational characterization of alien invasive flora and its management implications

A continuing lack of consensus on the operational characterisation of alien invasive species (AIS) in invasion biology has hampered the integration of research results generated worldwide. This impedes our progress in devising sound management strategies to stem the tide of biological invasions. In this regard, we here use the neutral terminology model of Colautti and MacIsaac (Divers Distrib 10:135–141, 2004) (CM model) for the characterization of alien invasive flora of the Kashmir Himalaya, India; and more emphatically, expound the utility of such a stage-based operational framework in the management of plant invasions. Out of the total of 436 alien invasive plant species recorded in the region, the number of species belonging to invasion stages II, III, IVa, IVb and V was 119, 107, 56, 77 and 77 species, respectively. In terms of relative proportion of species belonging to the different invasion stages, trees dominated the Stage-V (31.25%), followed by aquatics, subshrubs, biennial herbs, perennial herbs, annual herbs and shrubs, in descending order. Based on the results obtained in the present investigation, and in an attempt to link the characterisation of AIS with the management of plant invasions, we here propose a hierarchical management framework based on prediction, prevention, prescription, and public awareness. While the present study focuses on plants only, the proposed management framework can be operationally used across different taxonomic groups, and within varied ecosystems, with potentially immense management implications.

MIREN: A New Research Network Concerned With Plant Invasion into Mountain Areas

As a result of global change, mountain areas are increasingly threatened by invasive alien plants. The Mountain Invasion Research Network (MIREN) initiates and integrates surveys, monitoring, experimental research, and management of plant invasions into mountains at a global scale.

Management of Plant Invasions: The Conflict of Perspective1

During the past decade, as the issue of plant invasion gained recognition in the public domain, both ecologists and weed scientists voluntarily or by mandate moved to provide their expertise to the management of invasive plants on public lands. Diverse views of nature carried to the table by ecologists and weed scientists have resulted in different priorities and opinions on management strategies. However, both groups share the goal of protecting natural resources for the public good. Efforts to achieve consensus among ecologists and weed scientists should acknowledge and resolve how and why the two groups come to different views of nature. Then, areas of mutual strength need to be identified so that improved management or restoration plans can be developed.Additional index words: Ecosystem management, restoration.

Integrating management of Pittosporum undulatum with other environmental weeds in Sydney's urban bushland

Natural bushland is a dwindling resource in the Sydney Metropolitan Area, not only because of direct clearing, but also because uncontrolled impacts from surrounding development have caused increasing degradation over time. Community change has been characterized by invasions of environmental weeds, and consequent displacement of many indigenous species. A few locally native species, Pittosporum undulatum in particular, have emerged as environmental weeds. Invasion of new habitats within a species' natural geographic range must be recognized, since their impact on natural communities can be as serious as that of the worst exotic invaders. Factors implicated as the immediate cause of environmental weed invasions include increased human-induced dispersal by birds, anthropogenic disturbance, suppression of fire and increased moisture and nutrients. Management of plant invasions often includes mitigation to reduce impacts of the immediate causes. Strategies to maximize the success of mitigation by identifying and ameliorating the factors which impact bushland from remote sources are discussed. Practical recommendations for restoration of degraded sites are given. Native weeds such as P. undulatum require specialized treatment within an integrated environmental weed management strategy. It is stressed that application of the best management strategies available will be wasted if more fundamental issues related to current planning practices are ignored. Uncoordinated and ad hoc decisions are continuing to reduce urban bushland to mere remnants with high edge-to-interior ratios. Only when these practices are recognized and addressed can long-term success in the treatment of environmental weed invasions be achieved by the many excellent restoration techniques being developed.

An Integrated Approach to the Ecology and Management of Plant Invasions

Plant invasions are a serious threat to natural and managed ecosystems worldwide. The number of species involved and the extent of existing invasions renders the problem virtually intractable, and it is likely to worsen as more species are introduced to new habitats and more existing invaders move into a phase of rapid spread. We contend that current research and management approaches are inadequate to tackle the problem. The current focus is mostly on the characteristics and control of individual invading species. Much can be gained, however, by considering other important components of the invasion problem. Patterns of weed spread indicate that many species have a long lag phase following introduction before they spread explosively. Early detection and treatment of invasions before explosive spread occurs will prevent many future problems. Similarly, a focus on the invaded ecosystem and its management, rather than on the invader, is likely to be more effective. Identification of the causal factors enhancing ecosystem invasibility should lead to more‐effective integrated control programs. An assessment of the value of particular sites and their degree of disturbance would allow the setting of management priorities for protection and control. Socioeconomic factors frequently play a larger part than ecological factors in plant invasions. Changes in human activities in terms of plant introduction and use, land use, and timing of control measures are all required before the plant invasion problem can be tackled adequately. Dealing with plant invasions is an urgent task that will require difficult decisions about land use and management priorities. These decisions have to be made if we want to conserve biodiversity worldwide.