Captive Animal Management Research Articles

Enriched social environment affects the utterance of acoustic signals of captive François' langurs

Vocal communication serves as an important mode of interaction among animals. The quantitative analysis of acoustic signals holds scientific value in highlighting the importance of understanding the social-ecological contexts and their effects on acoustic communication. The results can provide a direct scientific guidance for enhancing the welfare and management of captive animals. From January to February 2022 and from December 2022 to February 2023, we conducted a study involving 30 captive François' langurs (Trachypithecus francoisi) housed in nine enclosures. We collected acoustic signals along with their associated social-ecological contexts and recorded the social composition and number of François' langurs in each enclosure. We in total identified 23 call types based on human ear auditory, spectrogram visual inspection, and quantitative analysis of 37 acoustic parameters. Our findings revealed that adult males exhibited nine call types (five adult male-specific types), adult females 11 call types (seven adult female-specific types), juveniles eight call types (two juvenile-specific types), and infants five call types (two infant-specific types). The asymmetry in call types indicated distinct social roles among different sex-age classes of François' langurs. We found that a complex social composition or larger group size resulted in a more diverse range of call types and increased utterance frequency among François' langurs. The increased utterance frequency was linked to calls used in neutral (contact), affiliation, mating, and vigilance contexts, indicating that a diverse social setting encourages social interaction and boosts the occurrence of natural behaviors, and may also result in increased tension and anxiety. Implementing a one-male multi-female model with ample breeding space for captive François' langurs was identified as beneficial for enhancing vocal communication and improving animal welfare. This study established the first vocal repertoire of François' langurs, offering a novel scientific approach to evaluating the welfare of this endangered species through vocal behaviors.

Peaceful Coexistence in Compassionate Conservation: A Policy Discourse Analysis

The principle of 'peaceful coexistence' in compassionate conservation emphasizes the need to assess and transform conservation practices to resolve conflicts between humans and animals. Zoos and aquariums, intended to foster connections between people and nature, serve as sites of daily interaction among various stakeholders, such as zookeepers, veterinarians, and ethologists. This research aims to examine how South Korea's Aquarium and Zoo Management Act, along with animal welfare, animal rights, and conservation discourse coalitions, critically evaluate and influence the management of captive animals to promote harmonious human-animal coexistence. Using a policy discourse analysis approach, the study investigates how these discourse coalitions frame policy issues and solutions in South Korean zoo management. By analysing semi-structured interviews, media content, and policy documents, this research identifies the need to emphasize a positive welfare state, leverage the influence of animal welfare discourse coalitions, and build networks and regulations that enforce welfare standards for captive animal management, ultimately realizing the principle of peaceful coexistence.

Conserved core microbiota in managed and free-ranging Loxodonta africana elephants.

The gut microbiota plays a crucial role in animal health and homeostasis, particularly in endangered species conservation. This study investigated the fecal microbiota composition of European captive-bred African savanna elephants (Loxodonta africana) housed in French zoos, and compared it with wild African savanna elephants. Fecal samples were collected and processed for DNA extraction and amplicon sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene. The analysis of α and β diversity revealed significant effects of factors such as diet, daily activity, and institution on microbiota composition. Specifically, provision of branches as part of the diet positively impacted microbiota diversity. Comparative analyses demonstrated distinct differences between captive and wild elephant microbiomes, characterized by lower bacterial diversity and altered co-occurrence patterns in the captive population. Notably, specific taxa were differentially abundant in captive and wild elephants, suggesting the influence of the environment on microbiota composition. Furthermore, the study identified a core association network shared by both captive and wild elephants, emphasizing the importance of certain taxa in maintaining microbial interactions. These findings underscore the impact of environment and husbandry factors on elephant gut microbiota, highlighting the benefits of dietary enrichment strategies in zoos to promote microbiome diversity and health. The study contributes to the broader understanding of host-microbiota interactions and provides insights applicable to conservation medicine and captive animal management.

Reducing publication delay to improve the efficiency and impact of conservation science.

Evidence-based decision-making is most effective with comprehensive access to scientific studies. If studies face significant publication delays or barriers, the useful information they contain may not reach decision-makers in a timely manner. This represents a potential problem for mission-oriented disciplines where access to the latest data is required to ensure effective actions are undertaken. We sought to analyse the severity of publication delay in conservation science—a field that requires urgent action to prevent the loss of biodiversity. We used the Conservation Evidence database to assess the length of publication delay (time from finishing data collection to publication) in the literature that tests the effectiveness of conservation interventions. From 7,447 peer-reviewed and non-peer-reviewed studies of conservation interventions published over eleven decades, we find that the raw mean publication delay was 3.2 years (±2SD = 0.1) and varied by conservation subject. A significantly shorter delay was observed for studies focused on Bee Conservation, Sustainable Aquaculture, Management of Captive Animals, Amphibian Conservation, and Control of Freshwater Invasive Species (Estimated Marginal Mean range from 1.4–1.9 years). Publication delay was significantly shorter for the non-peer-reviewed literature (Estimated Marginal Mean delay of 1.9 years ± 0.2) compared to the peer-reviewed literature (i.e., scientific journals; Estimated Marginal Mean delay of 3.0 years ± 0.1). We found publication delay has significantly increased over time (an increase of ~1.2 years from 1912 (1.4 years ± 0.2) to 2020 (2.6 years ± 0.1)), but this change was much weaker and non-significant post-2000s; we found no evidence for any decline. There was also no evidence that studies on more threatened species were subject to a shorter delay—indeed, the contrary was true for mammals, and to a lesser extent for birds. We suggest a range of possible ways in which scientists, funders, publishers, and practitioners can work together to reduce delays at each stage of the publication process.

The utility of social network analysis for informing zoo management: Changing network dynamics of a group of captive hamadryas baboons (Papio hamadryas) following an introduction of two young males.

Comprehensive knowledge of social groups within zoos allows for better understanding of the issues surrounding group stability and how to provide captive animals with optimal care. A developing area of sociality research that works to improve this understanding is social network analysis (SNA), which allows scientists to apply quantitative measures of group systems to represent social structure. In December 2015, Oakland Zoo introduced two new males to the hamadryas baboon (Papio hamadryas) exhibit. We examined the changing group structure of these baboons over the course of 6 months (July-December 2016) using social network analysis, specifically focusing on the changing social structure of the existing group and the utility of SNA methods for optimal care of captive animals. This study found that over time, the new males decreased their overall individual centrality, while some individuals had an increase in betweenness, a measure of an individual's intermediary role in the network. The results also illustrate the utility of social network analysis as tool for zoo management to examine how husbandry may have an impact on their animals, specifically for social species. Further research on the social networks of hamadryas baboon multi-clan formation could provide more information about the societal structure of this primate species, as well as the use of social network analysis as a valuable tool in captive animal management.

Leveraging Social Learning to Enhance Captive Animal Care and Welfare

From ants to zebras, animals are influenced by the behavior of others. At the simplest level, social support can reduce neophobia, increasing animals’ exploration of novel spaces, foods, and other environmental stimuli. Animals can also learn new skills more quickly and more readily after observing others perform them. How then can we apply animals’ proclivity to socially learn to enhance their care and welfare in captive settings? Here, I review the ways in which animals (selectively) use social information, and propose tactics for leveraging that to refine the behavioral management of captive animals: to enhance socialization techniques, enrichment strategies, and training outcomes. It is also important to consider, however, that social learning does not always promote the uniform expression of new behaviors. There are differences in animals’ likelihood to seek out or use socially provided information, driven by characteristics such as species, rank, age, and personality. Additionally, social learning can result in inexact transmission or the transmission of undesirable behaviors. Thus, understanding when, how, and why animals use social information is key to developing effective strategies to improve how we care for animals across settings and, ultimately, enhance captive animal welfare.

The use of visible implant elastomer to permanently identify caecilians (Amphibia: Gymnophiona)

Identifying individual animals is important for studying populations and for the optimal management of individual animals in captivity. In the absence of natural markings that discriminate individuals, such identification may require animals to be marked by researchers. Amphibians are challenging subjects to mark due to their small size and sensitive, permeable and frequently shed skin. Visible Implant Elastomer (VIE) has been widely used to mark amphibians, but no long-term study has validated this technique in caecilian amphibians. We anaesthetised and attempted to VIE mark seven Herpele squalostoma and one Microcaecilia unicolor held at ZSL London Zoo. No specimens suffered ill effects of anaesthesia or VIE injection, but mean persistence of marks was 191 days in H. squalostoma suggesting that this marking technique is not suitable for identifying individuals of this species in the long-term. We were unable to inject VIE into the M. unicolor and/or the elastomer was not visible through the darkly pigmented skin. Further research is required to develop methods for long-term marking of a diversity of caecilians.

HEMATOLOGY, SERUM BIOCHEMISTRY, AND URINALYSIS VALUES IN THE ADULT GIANT PANDA ( AILUROPODA MELANOLEUCA).

The giant panda ( Ailuropoda melanoleuca) is a high-profile threatened species with individuals in captivity worldwide. As a result of advances in captive animal management and veterinary medicine, the ex situ giant panda population is aging, and improved understanding of age-related changes is necessary. Urine and blood samples were collected in April and July 2015 and analyzed for complete blood count, serum biochemistry, and biochemical and microscopic urine analysis for all individuals sampled ( n = 7, 7-16 yr of age) from giant panda housed at the China Research and Conservation Centre for the Giant Panda in Bifengxia, Sichuan Province, China. Hematology and serum biochemistry values were similar to those previously reported for giant panda aged 2-20 yr and to Species360 (formerly International Species Information System) values. Urine was overall dilute (urine specific gravity range: 1.001-1.021), acellular, and acidic (pH range: 6-7). This is the first report of hematologic and serum biochemistry, with associated urinalysis values, in the giant panda aged 7-16 yr.

The 'Feline Five': An exploration of personality in pet cats (Felis catus).

The idea of animals possessing personalities was once dismissed by the scientific community, but has since gained traction with evidence for potential application to improve captive animal management and welfare. Although domestic cats are popular companion animals, research has tended to overlook the value of personality assessment for management and care of pet cats. The aim of this study was to investigate personality in a large sample of pet cats with a view to understanding practical implications for pet cats in the home. Personality of 2,802 pet cats, from South Australia and New Zealand, was rated by their owners utilising a survey measuring 52 personality traits. Five reliable personality factors were found using principal axis factor analysis: Neuroticism, Extraversion, Dominance, Impulsiveness and Agreeableness. Implications for the ‘Feline Five’ are discussed in relation to their potential application to improving the management and welfare of pet cats. Highly Impulsive cats for example, may be reacting to something stressful in their environment, whereas cats with low Agreeableness scores, showing irritability may indicate underlying pain or illness. Thus, the need for a systematic and holistic approach to personality that includes both the individual pet cat and its environment is recommended, and opens the door to future interdisciplinary intervention.

Using an active Radio Frequency Identification Real-Time Location System to remotely monitor animal movement in zoos

Radio and satellite telemetry collars have been used across taxa, including with elephants, in situ for decades to collect data used for various analyses. To quantify the movement patterns of African elephants, Loxodonta africana, in a zoo, we modified a Real-Time Location System using active Radio Frequency Identification tags originally developed for inventory and asset tracking in warehouses. This is the first phase of a multi-phase project that we have termed the Real-Time Observer of Animal Movement. It allows for the continuous data collection and data analytics of elephant movement and space use in a mixed-species African savanna habitat at the Dallas Zoo. This system could prove to be a useful remote welfare tool for a variety of animal species at multiple facilities. We determined that a Real-Time Location System using Radio Frequency Identification tags could be used to continuously monitor elephant movement, social relationships, and exhibit use remotely over several acres in a zoo with a volume of data not otherwise possible to achieve. Real-time visual outputs include current location in the habitat, paths taken around the habitat, habitat preferences, social relationships between the elephants, and data tables with average rate of travel and distance traveled. The pilot system at the Dallas Zoo is the first-ever use of active Radio Frequency Identification technology to observe zoo animal behavior patterns and monitor welfare. It has proven to be an effective tool for efficiently collecting data continuously and remotely throughout the day and night. It represents the first phase of a multifaceted project that will add capabilities and functionality for additional species and other zoos to form a network for sharing data to inform captive animal management strategies.

Coping strategies in captive capuchin monkeys (Sapajus spp.)

Studies on diverse species indicate the existence of individual differences in stress coping strategies labelled as ‘proactive’ and ‘reactive’. Identifying taxonomic distribution of such coping strategies is fundamental to evolutionary models and to management of captive animals. Capuchin monkeys (Sapajus spp.) are neotropical primates noted for their cognitive skills and behavioural plasticity. The capuchin clade faces increasing threats from Human Induced Rapid Environment Change, and a growing number of animals are kept in rescue centers and zoos. Based on an ethogram with 28 behavioural categories, we employed Principal Component Analysis to explore differences in behaviour potentially indicative of stress (BPIS) in a sample of 123 captive brown capuchins. We identified five principal components summarising BPIS and labelled as: Restless, Self-narcotizing/fear, Self-protection, Stereotyped, and Help-seek. Multivariate GLM and regression analyses indicated no sex differences. It was not possible to map the five components onto the five personality dimensions recently described for capuchins. However, two of the patterns (Restless and Self-protection) parallel the two coping strategies described in several other species (Proactive and Reactive), and may reflect stress-reactivity that is conserved across species.

Giant pandas failed to show mirror self-recognition.

Mirror self-recognition (MSR), i.e., the ability to recognize oneself in a mirror, is considered a potential index of self-recognition and the foundation of individual development. A wealth of literature on MSR is available for social animals, such as chimpanzees, Asian elephants and dolphins, yet little is known about MSR in solitary mammalian species. We aimed to evaluate whether the giant panda can recognize itself in the mirror, and whether this capacity varies with age. Thirty-four captive giant pandas (F:M = 18:16; juveniles, sub-adults and adults) were subjected to four mirror tests: covered mirror tests, open mirror tests, water mark control tests, and mark tests. The results showed that, though adult, sub-adult and juvenile pandas exposed to mirrors spent similar amounts of time in social mirror-directed behaviors (χ(2) = 0.719, P = 0.698), none of them used the mirror to touch the mark on their head, a self-directed behavior suggesting MSR. Individuals of all age groups initially displayed attacking, threatening, foot scraping and backwards walking behaviors when exposed to their self-images in the mirror. Our data indicate that, regardless of age, the giant pandas did not recognize their self-image in the mirror, but instead considered the image to be a conspecific. Our results add to the available information on mirror self-recognition in large mammals, provide new information on a solitary species, and will be useful for enclosure design and captive animal management.

Life expectancy and longevity of varanid lizards (Reptilia:Squamata:Varanidae) in North American zoos.

In zoos, life expectancy-the average lifespan of individuals within a population, and longevity-the maximum lifespan within a population, can be useful parameters for evaluating captive husbandry and animal welfare. Using life history and demographic data derived from regional studbooks, this study examined life expectancy and longevity in a total of 782 wild-caught (WC) and captive-bred (CB) varanid lizards of seven species maintained in North American zoos since 1926. The average lifespans for WC and CB animals were 6.3 ± 0.3 and 9.3 ± 0.4 years, respectively, with CB males living significantly longer than females (P = 0.009). A total of 26.4% of WC and 22.5% of CB animals experienced mortality during their first 2 years in captivity, with mortality during this period greatest among Varanus rudicollis and V. prasinus. A positive correlation was observed between life expectancy and adult body mass in captive-bred individuals (r = 0.981; P = 0.002). Wild-caught females with a history of successful reproduction had a significantly greater average lifespan than non-reproducing females (P < 0.0001). Results from this study suggest that varanids have not been reaching their lifespan capacities in North American zoos. In light of these findings, several husbandry-related factors which may be affecting the welfare and lifespans of varanids in zoos are identified and discussed. This study also highlights the utility of demographic and life history data in captive animal management, and offers a general framework for future herpetological studies of a similar nature.

Testing the effect of medical positive reinforcement training on salivary cortisol levels in bonobos and orangutans.

The management of captive animals has been improved by the establishment of positive reinforcement training as a tool to facilitate interactions between caretakers and animals. In great apes, positive reinforcement training has also been used to train individuals to participate in simple medical procedures to monitor physical health. One aim of positive reinforcement training is to establish a relaxed atmosphere for situations that, without training, might be very stressful. This is especially true for simple medical procedures that can require animals to engage in behaviours that are unusual or use unfamiliar medical devices that can be upsetting. Therefore, one cannot exclude the possibility that the training itself is a source of stress. In this study, we explored the effects of medical positive reinforcement training on salivary cortisol in two groups of captive ape species, orangutans and bonobos, which were familiar to this procedure. Furthermore, we successfully biologically validated the salivary cortisol assay, which had already been validated for bonobos, for orangutans. For the biological validation, we found that cortisol levels in orangutan saliva collected during baseline conditions were lower than in samples collected during three periods that were potentially stressful for the animals. However, we did not find significant changes in salivary cortisol during medical positive reinforcement training for either bonobos or orangutans. Therefore, for bonobos and orangutans with previous exposure to medical PRT, the procedure is not stressful. Thus, medical PRT provides a helpful tool for the captive management of the two species.

Nutrition of the captive western lowland gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla): a dietary survey.

The successful management of captive animals requires attention to multiple interconnected factors. One critical aspect of the daily life of a captive animal is the recommended and/or provisioned diet. This study focuses on the diets of zoo-housed gorillas. A national survey of diets among zoo-housed gorillas was conducted to examine diets being offered to captive gorillas in the United States and Canada. This survey serves as a follow-up to a 1995 dietary survey of zoo-housed gorillas and goes further to quantify nutritional profiles at responding institutions. Results are encouraging, as zoos have made clear improvements in dietary nutrient profiles offered over the past 15 years. However, we suggest that zoological and sanctuary institutions follow Gorilla Species Survival Plan (SSP) recommendations and work to continuously improve diets provided, which could improve gorillas' health and well-being.

Is training zoo animals enriching?

Husbandry training of zoo animals (training) has been associated with many benefits, and indisputably is a valuable tool; training facilitates movement of animals within their environment, and participation in husbandry and medical procedures. Training has also been considered to be enriching. With few exceptions systematic empirical data have not been collected which have evaluated the impact of training zoo animals outside of the training session. Most publications in this area are methodological, outlining what behaviours can be trained and how, or consider the value of training whether it is believed to be beneficial or detrimental. Determining whether training is enriching, is in part hindered by semantics; what is meant by the suggestion that training is enriching? To move this situation forward five hypotheses have been suggested in this paper whereby animals would be considered to be enriched, if training: 1) affords learning opportunities, as learning is considered to be enriching; 2) can achieve the same results as conventional environmental enrichment (CEE); 3) increases human–animal interactions; 4) provides a dynamic change in the animals’ day; and 5) facilitates the provision of CEE. These suggested hypotheses are by no means exhaustive, but represent commonly held assumptions used to explain how training might be considered enriching. These hypotheses provide a starting point to systematically consider available data which support or refute whether training is enriching; an evidence based approach.Data collated revealed that training could be considered enriching according to: hypothesis 1, whilst the animal is still learning; hypothesis 2, if the ultimate consequence of training was considered itself enriching. More data are required to test hypothesis 3. And data did not support that training was enriching in and of itself according to hypotheses 4 and 5. In conclusion, training was not considered to be an appropriate alternative to the provision of CEE. Both, training and CEE are recommended to ensure an integrated holistic captive animal management strategy which will meet an animal's needs.

Using personality ratings and cortisol to characterize individual differences in African Elephants (Loxodonta africana)

The development of indices to assist in the management of captive animals and assess their well-being is a key priority for those responsible for providing care to animals in captivity, including the zoological community. In particular, the design of indices for use with some of the more charismatic and socially complex animals, such as African elephants is a major focus. The use of personality ratings and/or cortisol measurements has become a common tool for managing farm animals and is gaining popularity within zoos. However, a combined behavioral and physiological approach has not been examined in captive African elephants (Loxodonta africana). We sought to characterize African elephants using serum and salivary cortisol measurements and our Elephant Behavior Index, a personality rating system modified from an index designed for nonhuman primates. Subjects were five adult female African elephants housed at Disney's Animal Kingdom®. Each subject was rated on the Elephant Behavior Index, which consisted of 23 personality adjectives on a 5-point scale, by 16 raters familiar with the elephants. Saliva and blood samples were collected for cortisol analyses. Reliability across raters for the Elephant Behavior Index was established and correlations between the 23 ratings revealed four components of elephant personality: fearful, effective, sociable and aggressive. Salivary and serum cortisol were correlated and the afternoon decline in cortisol that has been documented in a variety of species was detected for both salivary and serum cortisol (morning salivary –M=0.038, SD=0.012; morning serum –M=2.147, SD=1.305; afternoon salivary –M=0.020, SD=0.008; afternoon serum –M=0.445, SD=0.251). We found positive correlations between morning cortisol levels and the fearful component and negative correlations between cortisol and effective, sociable and aggressive components. Our study demonstrated how personality ratings and cortisol can be utilized to assess individual characteristics of African elephants. Determining these unique characteristics will allow caregivers to tailor management protocols to the meet the needs of individual elephants.

A Book for All Zoos

Wild Mammals in Captivity. Principles and Techniques for Zoo Management . 2nd edition . D. G. Kleiman , K. V. Thompson , and C. Kirk Baer , editors. 2010. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL, U.S.A. 548 pp. $85 (hardcover). ISBN 978-0-226-44009-5. For those of us interested in captive animal management practices or the effect of zoos and aquariums on current conservation efforts, this volume is essential. There has never been a greater need for species-based conservation action. Nearly one-quarter of the world's mammal species are threatened with extinction by climate change and rapidly increasing human pressures. Zoos and aquariums are well positioned to participate in animal conservation and recovery programs. The zoo community works well together and contributes substantially to the maintenance of threatened species through increasingly successful captive breeding and management programs. Zoos and aquariums also raise public awareness about the need for conservation through continually evolving exhibit design. Since 1991, members of the Association of Zoos and Aquariums have contributed nearly $US5.0 million to 280 conservation projects worldwide. There has been an increased emphasis on raising money to support in situ conservation and providing equipment, training, and other forms of capacity-building skills (e.g., educational outreach and fund raising in support of field work). The Association of Zoos and Aquariums estimates that in the United States over 143 million people visit zoos and aquariums annually. The World Association of Zoos and Aquariums estimates that over 600 million people visit zoos annually worldwide. This presents an enormous opportunity to raise public awareness about critical losses of biological diversity, influence public behavior to lessen the human footprint, tell the story about how zoos and aquariums are responding to the species loss, and inspire the public to contribute monetarily to conservation activities. The first edition of Wild Mammals in Captivity, published in 1996, summarized for the first time the modern means and methods for the exhibition and management of mammals in a zoo environment. The second edition is a thorough and thoughtful update of the original. Like the first edition, the second is not a recipe for the management of mammals; rather, it is a primer that explains basic principles and provides overviews of a broad range of topics relevant to the care of mammals in captivity. In the new edition, the editors draw on their own extensive expertise and that of 78 professionals in the field. Over 75% of the chapters and appendixes contain substantially new content, and other chapters present material with intriguing new insights. This volume is less theoretical and more management oriented than the previous edition. The contributing authors represent a much broader representation of the international zoo community compared with the 1996 edition. Although the second edition, like its predecessor, is primarily intended for the zoo and aquarium community, conservation professionals will find much of the book relevant to their work as well. As in the previous edition, the second is divided into seven parts—Ethics and Animal Welfare, Basic Mammal Management, Nutrition, Exhibitry, Conservation and Research, Behavior, Reproduction—and is followed by four appendixes. Part 5, Conservation and Research, will be of particular interest to conservation professionals. Research in zoos and aquariums has been conducted for many years and is well respected. The participation of zoos and aquariums in conservation is a much more recent development. This section provides detailed reviews of the demographic and genetic management of captive mammal populations; regional collection planning; methods for the selection of species for ex situ conservation efforts; management of surplus animals, which can be the unfortunate result of successful captive breeding programs; role of captive breeding in reintroduction programs; and research trends and the role of zoos in contributing to in situ conservation. Wild Mammals in Captivity provides a valuable summary and comprehensive description of current zoo practices. By drawing on the writings of many different authors, the book is especially successful at offering a variety of perspectives. Sadly, the senior editor, Devra Kleiman, passed away just before publication. Dedicated to her memory, the book memorializes her important contributions to the fields of animal behavior and conservation. The zoo and conservation communities owe a tremendous debt to Kleiman and her coeditors for their efforts to assemble such a vast amount of theoretical and practical knowledge about mammals in captivity in a single volume.

Case study: training a chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) to use a nebulizer to aid the treatment of airsacculitis

Bacterial airsacculitis has been reported in a variety of nonhuman primates, and is widely treated using a combination of surgery and oral antibiotics. This case study details an alternative method of administering antibiotics (via the use of a nebulizer) when the chimpanzee subject developed resistance to all available oral preparations. Training the chimpanzee to use the nebulizer was performed using positive reinforcement techniques (PRT). It took a total of 89 sessions (<7 hr 25 min) to train the chimpanzee to use the nebulizer. The airsacculitis infection was treated using colistin in the nebulizer twice a day for 9 days. Out of 18 potential treatment sessions, full doses were administered on 13 occasions. The final dose of colistin was given via slow brachial intravenous injection under general anesthesia. The infection was successfully treated with colistin. Although there was a training time investment involved, it was felt to be outweighed by the success of the treatment. Also in the likelihood of the infection re-occurring at a later date, the now learnt behavior of using a nebulizer means that future treatment should now be considerably quicker. This is another example of how PRT is a useful tool in the successful welfare and management of captive animals.

Capacity building for better animal welfare

All zoos and aquariums aim to maintain animals with good welfare. Empirical evidence has demonstrated that various activities, described collectively as behavioural husbandry (BH), are associated with good animal welfare, so a lot of zoos now integrate BH into many of their captive animal management regimes. The widespread implementation of BH seems ubiquitous; however, some zoos do not have access to the resources, knowledge and skills that underpin BH. Building capacity within these zoos, so they have the information necessary to enhance the welfare of their animals, should be a high priority. In this case study, a workshop successfully provided 16 delegates with this information. Evaluation of the workshop demonstrated it effectively increased knowledge. More importantly, it proved to be a catalyst for a number of BH initiatives in a variety of zoos worldwide, which occurred after the workshop. Information was also promulgated further by delegates to colleagues within their institutions and also further afield within their region.