Men In Years Research Articles

Improvement of Symptoms of Chronic Prostatitis Like Perineal Heaviness and Frequency After Ten Complete Session of per Rectal Infra Red Laser Therapy

Objective : To observe the improvement of the symptoms of perineal heaviness and frequency after treatment with Magnetic Infra Red Laser therapy in patients of chronic pelvic pain syndrome /Chronic Prostatitis Methods : This study was an observational study done on 30 male patients with age range varied from 30 to 60 years .The study was conducted from 2009 to 2011 in a private medical center at Dhaka city . The MIL-therapy in use has a wave length of 904 nm and a frequency of 3000 Hz. The Laser beam reaches the prostate with a special optical probe. In this study the patient is examined per rectally after doing digital rectal examination with use of gloves and gel. At the beginning we used a “Laser Super Sonic” machine with endorectal optical probe according to Strada. The treatment schedule was one treatment every two days (treatment’s time of 5/10 minutes, wave length 1000 KHz) for a total of 10 applications. After 10 applications patients were asked for follow up and data were collected and analysed. Results : Out of 30 patients of chronic pelvic pain syndrome aged between 30-60 yrs were under treatment with MIL therapy. Among them only 22 patients were with complains of perineal heaviness, 20 patients were cured and 22 patients were with complains of frequency, 20 were cured and 02 were improved after laser treatment . Among 30 cases 23 patients found normal sized prostate and 07 found enlarged prostate on digital rectal examination and on USG findings, 21 were found normal sized , 09 found enlarged sized prostate and 07 patients had increased PVR . Conclusion : Treatment with Magnetic infra red laser therapy (MIL-therapy) gives useful effect on chronic pelvic pain syndrome (CPPS). The following short article gives a very good summary of the benefits of laser therapy and totally cured of symptoms . CPPS , a painful type of Chronic Prostatitis frequently troubles man for years. Among many sign and symptoms of CPPS , like perineal heaviness and frequency were observed and found very good effect after laser therapy. Bangladesh Journal of Urology, Vol. 18, No. 2, July 2015 p.79-82

Survival in men diagnosed with prostate cancer in Poland in the years 2000 - 2014 compared to European Countries based on Concord-3.

Wealthy countries have observed in recent decades a fast-growing number of prostate patients, who require treatment and long-term cancer care. This trend seems to be connected with some demographic changes such as aging societies, better access to diagnostic methods with high sensitivity as well as large-scale secondary prevention (prostate cancer screening at early stage before clinical manifestation). Secondary prevention is becoming more accessible and widely applied. The expected effect of prevention is to improve overall survival while the mortality trend is decreasing. The prevention success requires highly effective healthcare system that must manage additional burden which is a consequence of the need to provide optimal treatment and healthcare in a big group of cancer patients diagnosed in effective prevention programms. According to the National Cancer Registry (NCR) the number of incidence from year 1980 - 1731 cases rose in year 2013 to 12 162 cases. Apart from incidence and mortality rates, the 5-year survival is a significant factor for the assessment of a population healthcare and healthcare system efficiency. The prognosis related to prostate incidence is 22 344 men in year 2025 in comparison to 12 162 in year 2013 - that would be a double rise in incidence. CONCORD-2 results (years 1995-2009) showed, among the others, that cancer curability for some cancers, including prostate cancer improved. In year 2018 the results of CONCORD-3 were published (years 2000-2014) showing a rising trend in improvement in prostate cancer curability in Poland. The objective was to analyse the 5-year survival in prostate cancer patients in Poland, and in each of 16 voivodships, with the focus on changes in years 2000 - 2014 in comparison to European trends. The analysis was based on the 5-year net survival (estimated in CONCORD-3) in prostate cancer patients diagnosed in Poland (NCR national data) and in all Polish voivodships. The 5-year survival of prostate cancer patients and its changes in years 2000 - 2014 compared between 16 voivodships, Poland in total and 28 European countries. In Poland in years 2010 - 2014 the 5-year survival in prostate cancer patients was 78.1%, and compared to years 2000 - 2004 rose by 9.3 percentage points. Despite a systematic improvement in survival the differences between individual voivodships in Poland remained. In 6 voivodships the survival was higher than average for Poland and ranged from 80 to 82%. The lowest survival was in Opolskie voivodship - 72.3%. On a European scale, the curability of prostate cancer at that time was over 90% (9 countries), while Poland was among 5 countries whose total survival rate was less than 80% (from 72.3% - Opolskie voivodship to 83.6% -- Pomeranian voivodship). The 5-year survival in prostate cancer patients in years 2010 - 2014 in Poland was significantly lower in comparison to Western Europe countries, and favourable trends on a regional level in Poland were too slow to overcome high differentiation in Europe. It is expected that changing the structure and organisation of cancer care in Poland into a modern National Oncology Network Comprehensive Cancer Care Network, together with the use of the experiences from European projects, including iPAAC and better financing will contribute to improvement in prostate cancer treatment in Poland.

On Principals and Agency: Reassembling Trust in Indian Ocean Commerce

AbstractThe role of trust in long-distance trade has been a topic of inquiry and debate among economists, sociologists, and historians. Much of this literature hinges on the social, legal, and economic structures that undergird, if not obviate, the concept of trust. This article draws on assemblage theory to suggest that trust in Indian Ocean trade is better understood as a key component of a commercial assemblage. Laws or social mores are not external to but rather enrolled within an assemblage constituted by people, commodities, profits, and “feelings,” as well as judicial systems. This conceptualization of trust is demonstrated through a close analysis of one trading relationship between a Somali merchant and an Indian merchant based in Aden and trading in the Idrisi Emirate of Asir. They established a partnership to exploit elevated prices in Asir during the First World War. After several months of trading, accusations of fraud and embezzling unraveled the partnership and entangled both men in years of legal battles. By tracing the changing socio-material assemblage of this partnership, the article demonstrates how trust should be understood as a dynamic and contingent factor in the operation of commercial agency.

Maintaining the Mechanisms of Colorblind Racism in the Twenty-First Century

The events of February 26, 2012 in Sanford, Florida will be remembered by man for years to come. That night, George Zimmerman, a 26-year-old half-Peruvian, phenotypically white man was on neighborhood watch and spotted Trayvon Martin, a 17-year-old black teenage boy who was staying in the area at the time and walking back to the house of his father’s girlfriend. The following events took place over the span of approximately 8 minutes. First, Zimmerman called 911 to report the suspicious activity. On the recording, we heard the 911 operator tell Zimmerman not to take action against the individual, but Zimmerman did anyway. Unidentified yelling follows. After that, the details of what transpired differ. Zimmerman claimed that he responded in self-defense. Witnesses claimed that they saw a fight between the two individuals, but it is unclear how or why it started. What is known is that an altercation between the two men ensued, and ended in Martin’s murder. The State of Florida charged Zimmerman with the murder, and the case went to trial on April 11, 2012. Zimmerman’s supporters pointed to the ‘‘stand your ground’’ policy, a law in Florida that permits anyone who perceives great bodily harm or death to use deadly force in order to protect themselves. However, even though Zimmerman’s lawyers did not use the ‘‘stand your ground’’ policy in their defense, their counterarguments led the jury to rule against the prosecution. On July 13, 2013, Zimmerman was acquitted of second-degree murder and manslaughter charges in Martin’s murder. Regardless of the nuances of legal policies and judicial debates, it is likely that this crime was motivated by racial attitudes and racist assumptions. As Rachel

Theodore M. Vestal. The Lion of Judah in the New World: Emperor Haile Selassie of Ethiopia and the Shaping of Americans' Attitude toward Africa. Santa Barbara, Calif.: Praeger, 2011. xv + 231 pp. Photo Essay. Notes. Selected Bibliography. Index. $44.95. Cloth.

BIOGRAPHY Theodore M. Vestal. The Lion of Judah in New World: Emperor Haile Selassie of Ethiopia and Shaping of Americans' Attitude toward Africa. Santa Barbara, Calif.: Praeger, 201 1 . xv + 231 pp. Photo Essay. Notes. Selected Bibliography. Index. $44.95. Cloth. present-day Ethiopia, begins this fascinating book, few know just how popular their monarch was in New World (xi). This is valid observation, but we could also say same about younger generation in present-day America. Compared to situation in past, image of Ethiopia in minds of most Americans is much less positive today, and far fewer Americans have memories of Haile Selassie. Vestal claims that the images of Africa and of Africans that American people developed during Haile Selassie's prominence will no doubt be referred to by historians, psychologists, and sociologist - as well as media - as having played part in election of Barack Obama as president in 2008 (xiii). This claim cannot be determined empirically, but this book is nevertheless invaluable for at least three groups of scholars: experts and students of Africa, comparative historians, and political scientists. For Africanists, it contains rich data about long-reigning monarch in northeast Africa which have either been unknown before or not systematically organized. There is much in book about personality and political instincts of Haile Selassie, especially as they pertain to his foreign policies. Comparative historians will benefit from its accounts of monarch's perspectives on pan-Africanism and collective security. And political scientists will have much to learn here about nuances of relationship between weak state in periphery and rising global power. Clearly many Americans were fascinated by Emperor Haile Selassie. In 1954 New York Times wrote that he was a man of courage, intelligence and great humanity (89), and it printed full text of his speech to joint session of U.S. Congress. In period of less than ten years, Haile Selassie was twice named Time magazine's man of year. American presidents who knew Haile Selassie, too, were unreserved in their praise for African monarch. During his first state visit to U.S. in 1954 Dwight Eisenhower described him as a defender of freedom and supporter of progress (53), and he was appreciative of emperor's decision to send Ethiopian troops to fight alongside Americans in Korea. Harry Truman by and large ignored him, perhaps because relationship between two countries was stable and Truman was preoccupied with emerging challenge from Soviet Union. …

Prevalence of Painful Musculoskeletal Conditions in Female and Male Veterans in 7 Years After Return From Deployment in Operation Enduring Freedom/Operation Iraqi Freedom

We sought to describe sex differences in the prevalence of painful musculoskeletal conditions in men and women Veterans after deployment in Operation Enduring Freedom (Afghanistan) and Operation Iraqi Freedom (Iraq) (OEF-OIF). This is an observational study using Veterans Affairs (VA) administrative and clinical databases of OEF-OIF Veterans who had enrolled in and used VA care. The prevalence of back problems, musculoskeletal conditions, and joint disorders was determined at years 1 through 7 after deployment for female and male Veterans using ICD-9 code groupings for these conditions. Female Veterans were younger (mean age 29 vs. 30, P<0.0001), more likely to be African American (26% vs. 13%, P<0.0001), and less likely to be married (34% vs. 47%, P<0.0001). For both female and male Veterans, the prevalence of painful musculoskeletal conditions increased each year after deployment. After adjustment for significant demographic differences, women were more likely than men to have back problems [year 1 odds ratio (OR) 1.06 (1.01, 1.11)], musculoskeletal problems [year 1 OR 1.32 (1.24, 1.40)], and joint problems [year 1 OR 1.36 (1.21, 1.53)] and the odds of having these conditions increased each year for women compared with men in years 1 to 7 after deployment. To provide quality care to female Veterans, the VA must understand the impact of deployment on women's health. Our findings provide an important picture of the increasing prevalence of musculoskeletal conditions in the female Veteran population and highlight the importance of the VA targeting treatment programs that focus on issues of particular importance to women with musculoskeletal pain.

Tracing the History of the Ornithopter: Past, Present, and Future

Since the earliest recorded history, humans have shared a nearly universal desire for the freedom of flight. This obsession with escaping gravity's unblinking gaze to somehow slip aloft, even for a fleeting moment, has inspired many to wax poetic about the dream of flight. Looking to nature's design, man for years attempted to replicate the flight of the bird, and even its predecessor, the pteranodon, in many a bid to break free of his earthly bonds. Though science eventually shifted its focus to balloons, and then to fixed-wing flight, as a means of sustaining flight, the freedom and effortless grace of birds is as captivating now as it ever was. From the earliest days of man's dreams of launching himself skyward to today's advanced designs, flapping-wing craft, known generally as ornithopters, have held a constant place in the quest to achieve the flowing elegance of flight so easily mastered by nature's own aeronauts. In the past several years, aircraft which capitalize on the mechanics of bird flight have enjoyed a renaissance of sorts. From the recent first flight of a human-powered ornithopter, to flapping-wing designs incorporated in nano-scale unmanned vehicles, aviation design has in many ways come full circle. This paper examines the history of, and influences on, ornithopters and their design, and investigates developments and future trends of this uniquely inspired aircraft.

Prognostic influence of gender in patients with oral tongue cancer

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the independent role of gender in affecting prognosis in patients with anterior tongue cancer. Patients recorded in the head and neck cancer registry of Milano-Bicocca School of Medicine between January 1981 and December 1998 were reviewed. Female patients with squamous cell carcinoma of the tongue were identified and matched to men for year of diagnosis, age, TNM classification, histologic grading, and treatment modalities. For each woman, two men were matched. Seventy-one women and 142 men satisfied our selection criteria. The frequency of recurrences was similar in the two study groups. This event occurred in 33 (46%) women and in 78 (55%) men (Fisher exact test, P = 0.25). The survival analysis confirmed that the rate of recurrences did not differ (log-rank test, P = 0.31). The number of cancer-related deaths in women and men was 23 (32%) and 55 (39%), respectively (Fisher exact test, P = 0.45). The survival analysis confirmed that gender did not affect survival (log-rank test, P = 0.34). In this study, gender does not influence prognosis in patients with oral tongue cancer.

Some Characteristics of Soils on the Man Made Mounds in The Harran Plain of Turkey

Morphological, chemical and some mineralogical characteristics of five soils, were researched to understand the genesis of soils on the man made mounds in the Harran Plain, in the Southeast Anatolia Region of Turkey. Five soil profiles developed on the man made mounds in the arid region. Time and climate have affected soil formation. Also, parent material has influenced the chemistry of soils. The parent material of man made mounds were carried from around soils in the Harran Plain by men in years ago. The parent materials of around soils are calcareous parent materials and alluvium materials. Pedon 1 was described on the Konuklu man made mounds the northeast of the study area and Pedon 5 was described on the Küplüce man made mounds the southeast of the study area. According to the place of man made mounds were ordered from north to south as following: Pedon 1, Pedon 2, Pedon 3, Pedon 4 and Pedon 5. The old of Konuklu mounds is approximately 5000-6000 years. The old of Sultantepe and Koruklu mounds are approximately 6000 years. Pedon 4 which was described on the old Harran city remnants have the youngest soils of study area. The Harran mounds was made in 1258 A.I. by Mongolians. Mongolians destroyed the Harran City and made the Harran mounds. The most important pedogenic processes is carbonate leaching and accumulation in the pedon 5 on the Küplüce man made mounds. The CaCO3 content of Pedon 5 may be attributed to eolian addition from Syria. Total Al2O3 contents of soils higher than total Fe2O3 content. According to the degree of soil formation the profiles were ordered as following: Pedon 3 > Pedon 5 > Pedon 2 > Pedon 1 > Pedon 4. The results of total elements analysis were used to determine the beta leaching factor according to Jenny. The leaching factor were determined as < 1 in the Pedon 1 (0.99), Pedon 2 (0.97), Pedon 3 (0.74) and Pedon 5 (0.92). The leaching factor were determined as >1 in the Pedon 4(1.13).

BIG RIG (Boys in Gippsland Reference and Information Group) Telling it like it is

In partial response to two fatal utility truck accidents involving local school students, the School Focused Youth Service Coordinator and the Student Welfare Coordinator decided to form a boys’ reference group to find out if the school was meeting the boys’ health and well-being information needs. This resulted in 20 young men discussing and deciding on how they would find out the information, then developing a survey and distributing it to 113 boys. A wealth of information was gained from the completed surveys from young men in Years 8, 9 and 10 on what their information priorities were and how they would like the information delivered.

Two steps forward and one step back? Australian secondary students’ sexual health knowledge and behaviors 1992–2002

Purpose To report on changes in the sexual health knowledge and sexual and risk behaviors of year 10 and 12 Australian school students between 1992 and 2002. Methods Surveys were administered at five yearly intervals to a total of 6781 students in 263 government secondary schools in all Australian states and territories. Results Analysis of data from the three survey administrations shows high levels of knowledge concerning human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immune deficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS), but a small but consistent decline since 1992. Knowledge about sexually transmitted infections and hepatitis remains poor. In 2002, there was an increase in the number of students reporting ever having had sexual intercourse, and this was most pronounced for year 10 students. The number of young men in year 10 who reported having three or more partners had doubled since 1997 to 33%. More year 10 young women also reported having intercourse with three or more partners. Consistency of condom use has improved over time; however, 39% still report condom use only sometimes. Conclusion School-based sexual health education provides a critical basis for ensuring that young people begin to experience sex safely and with an appropriate knowledge base.

On being a doctor. Mrs. Posner's smile.

The world she inhabited was fleeting, stitched together extemporaneously from some retained repository of information. Yet, something essentially human had been preserved.

Mental health at population level during an economic recession in Finland

The aim of this study was to investigate the prevalence of mental disorder and associated factors during an economic recession. Random samples of Finnish general population were collected in 3 consecutive years, 1993-95. The prevalence of mental disorders was assessed by means of the 12-item General Health Questionnaire (GHQ). The prevalence of mental disorders varied among Finnish men from 15.6% to 19.2% and among women from 21 to 24.5%. Mental disorder was more common among women than among men in every study year. Mental disorder was more common among the unemployed than among other respondents both in women and men in every year. Subjective poor health, suicidal thoughts and poor economic situation were constantly associated with mental disorder in both sexes every year. Using logistic regression analyses, problems with a partner, uncertain future orientation and use of psychoactive drugs, in particular, were found to be fairly permanent independent risk factors in relation to mental disorder. As studied by gender no major changes occurred in the mental health status of Finns during economic recession, although in many specific groups mental disorder was markedly more common than in the general population.

Patterns of common drug use in teenagers

To ascertain current levels of drug use among teenagers and to examine interrelationships in use, a two-stage cluster sample of Victorian secondary school students in years 7 (aged 12 to 13 years), 9 (14 to 15 years) and 11 (16 to 17 years) were surveyed using a questionnaire on computer. Tobacco use and alcohol consumption were evaluated by self-reported frequency of use and seven-day retrospective diaries. Marijuana and coffee consumption were assessed by self-reported frequency of recent use. The questionnaire was completed by 2525, a participation rate of 83 per cent. Tobacco use rose with year, with 24 per cent of young women and 16 per cent of young men in year 11 being regular smokers. Trends across year level for heavier alcohol consumption were also observed, with just under 10 per cent of year 11 students reporting a weekly consumption higher than the current recommended guidelines for adults. Strong interrelationships in drug use were found, with a pattern of association between smoking and drinking consistent with a mutual elevation of risk. Frequent use of tobacco and alcohol had a high risk for associated marijuana use. Coffee consumption carried a significant independent association with regular smoking. Teenage substance use is common and most occurs at low level and frequency. However, for a substantial and increasing minority across the teenage years, high levels of tobacco and alcohol consumption potentially compromise health. Frequent alcohol or tobacco use rather than heavy intermittent consumption is most likely to be associated with concurrent substance use potentially damaging to health.

Montalembert at Mechlin: A Reprise of 1830

He was not an old man in years, but as he stepped down from the railroad carriage to the gritty floor of the platform he looked frail and weary, and his three companions hovered pro tectively around him. He walked slowly and somewhat stooped, as though his back hurt him, which indeed it did. He wore for mal garb—a buttoned coat of quality black broadcloth, a stiff white shirt-front, and an abbreviated black cravat. When he raised his tall hat in greeting to the group of distinguished gen tlemen, clerical and lay, who had come to meet him, he revealed a full head of hair, still dark, curling around his ears and collar, a rather swarthy face and smooth, except for bunches of wrin kles at the outer corners of his eyes, a small nose, a wide mouth, and pouches of soft flesh beneath the jaw line. He shook hands with each of the local dignitaries, except with one, a bishop, whose hand he kissed. He nodded and smiled at the anxious inquiries about the health of his wife and daughter, recently injured in a traffic accident but, now, Dieu merci, he said, more comfortable and on the mend. His manner was amiable without being familiar, and he appeared to accept the deference offered to him with the disinterestedness of one long accustomed to it. The cast of his eyes was even and straightforward, but at a blink they could become wary and tentative, as though they belonged to a man not unacquainted with failure and weakness. Chatting with the welcoming party inevitably about weather and railway timetables, he was led through the station and outside into the bright summer afternoon. He could see the town rising out of a jumble of gabled roofs across a short stretch of meadow, and, three hundred feet above them, the top of the round buttressed tower of the cathedral shimmering in the sunlight. Of course, he

To Teach Youth Better

Behind Danforth Foundation awards of $10,000 each to ten college teachers for excellence in class room is a recognition that quality of col lege is not all that it should be. Unhappily many of devices used to improve college have little effect. Danforth award to John McDermott of Queens College, for example, will have little impact on thousands of other college teachers in New York City. A ritual of rewarding teachers is of recent origin, although it had been done occasionally in past at graduation ceremonies to ease a sense of guilt as some faculty member was retiring, unsung, unpraised, and unrewarded up to that moment. Over 360 colleges and universities now give great teaching awards al though they are nowhere near as generous as Dan forth awards. Liberal Arts colleges and universities lead in this practice. One enthusiastic alumnus read whole idea into Congressional Record of January 20, 1959, where wishful benefits from this ceremony are recorded for posterity. epithets attached to reward of Great Teacher tell much about practice. In some institu tions professor is called The Best Teacher, Top Prof, Prof of Year, Man of Year, as well as Professor with Greatest Influence on Students. These terms for excellence in indicate seriousness or lack of it which accompanies award by a college. In some institutions, ritual of teacher awards has Midas Touch of Madison Avenue with ceremony, check, pictures, and news releases. In many colleges rewarding of teachers was not initiated by faculty action, faculty consultation, or faculty par ticipation, but by administrator managers as a thing because other colleges are doing it. In one institu tion, a faculty senate chairman spoke in public against practice, but yet approved idea in his Senate vote, saying If I can get a thousand dollars for a colleague, Til not vote No ! Are teacher awards beneficial? No one is against recognizing an outstanding but there are questions about practice that need to be asked. Do such awards really award teaching? Do they re ward teachers in way in which they want to be rewarded? Do they inspire greater among faculty? It is unfortunate that colleges do not ask such questions before they fall in line with practices so full of assumptions, subjective judgments, and mumbo jumbo of public relations. major difficulty is in definition or concept of what is great. No two professors seem to agree. Among students of a great teacher, some will rank same professor as a great teacher, others lousy. Great may mean different things to deans, departmental chairmen, and to different students. Great teachers are often confused with distinguished reputations and frequently high salaries designate a reputation more than they indicate teaching. A study at New York University revealed a negative rela tion between students' evaluation of some teachers and departmental chairmen's judgment with respect to class room performance of these teachers. best of teachers fail with some students, and dullard is sometimes praised by a student. Who is to judge? Descriptions of teachers reveal no com mon consensus. Some are described as platform per formers of first order, keeping students on edge of their seats with their command of language and their apt phraseology. Woodrow Wilson was such. Others are less exciting. John Dewey was not exciting as a lecturer, but students saw a mind at work and some minds were developed in process. trouble is that a teacher means many different things. This is even true for teachers themselves, who mistake silent, eyes opened student as one who is thinking. Deans and de partmental chairmen operate in virtual darkness as to what does or does not go on in classroom and rate teachers on basis of a chance remark or letter. No one within college or university seems to be a good source for selecting the greats. Great should cause students to change in some way. A student who acquires knowledge that makes no difference to him is a student who remains unchanged. Students who learn either behave differently or behave with greater conviction because of what they have learned or have examined what they know or what they believe in. A self-confrontation, which is essence of teaching, produces changes in some students. Some students resist change, while some professors are unable to create any internal self-confrontation by their students.

Have You Read…?

Prime numbers have fascinated man for years; they are the source of many questions and have led to the identification of many important concepts. This article gives some interesting ideas about primes, such as: there are an infinite number of palindromic primes such as 313, 929, 73,637; there are, however, also “reversibles” which are not palindromic. For example, there are 93 five-digit palindromes such as 35153 but there are 1,366 other reversibles that are prime but are not palindromic. Palindromes and reversibles must begin and end with 1, 3, 7, or 9. Palindromes cannot have an even number of digits, but this is not true of reversibles. A unique six-digit prime is 193939, which is reversible and cyclic. The six numbers formed by successively moving the initial digit to the end are each reversible. Similarly, 11939 is unique among five-digit primes. There are no such numbers with four or seven digits.

Senator Humphrey Named Man of Year

Senator Humphrey Named Man of Year

Auxiliary Water Supplies for Fire Protection

AUXILIARY supply for fire protection may be considered to be any auxiliary or emergency water system of sufficient capacity to be valuable for fire service. The most important auxiliary supplies for fire service, however, are those installed exclusively for that purpose. Many cities, including such large ones as New York, Boston and San Francisco, have installed extensive high pressure fire service systems; and many industrial establishments and quasipublic institutions have provided special fire supplies. Such private auxiliary systems have been of interest to water works men for years, first, because of the possibility of their lessening materially the income of water suppliers, and more recently because of the danger of pollution of domestic supplies through cross-connection. In regard to this inter-relationship between public water supplies and independent fire systems, it is interesting to study the conditions which introduced the necessity for the auxiliary supplies. Prior to the beginning of the Twentieth Century, little attention was paid to the full needs of fire protection when water systems were designed. Hydrants were installed, but they were often small and widely spaced, and the use of four-inch and smaller pipe was common practice, even in high value areas. It was common practice, too, to close gate valves, and leave a section without water, when taps and extensions had to be made; and there are known cases where an entire system was left without water while changes or additions to the piping system were made. Many items affecting the reliability of continuous service had not been properly studied, with the result that from time to time

The Basis of International Trade

arises because a country specializes in the production of certain goods and services and thus produces more than enough to supply the domestic demand. Obviously it must export the surplus to continue the specialization. To receive a return for its exports, a country must ultimately import either goods or services. Imports pay for exports -both of which may consist of services as well as of goods. Services, the socalled invisible items of international trade, have occasioned confusion in the minds of many because until recently only the commodities actually exchanged have appeared on the national trade balances. While the bases of foreign and domestic commerce are thus the same, international trade is far more complicated because of new factors which enter into the transactions. False theories, nationalism, differences in language and customs, so complicate exchange of goods between nations as to make impossible a comparison with domestic trade. In no field of economics have more misleading theories prevailed than in international trade. The doctrine of caveat emptor long prevailed in domestic trade; it still persists in foreign commerce. Men for years insisted that what a buyer gained by purchase, the seller must necessarily lose. The argument appealed to reason as a most logical deduction under the law of compensation. It later became evident that values might not be the same for any one good to two different people-in other words, that the marginal utility of a commodity differed for different people according to their need at the particular time, or to their supply relative to this demand. Both seller and buyer may, and usually do, actually gain from a trade because of the differing utility of the purchase to each of them. But national boundaries seem to vitiate this argument of gain to both parties. It seems untrue when one party is a foreigner.