Mammoth Teeth Research Articles

Study of a Mammoth Tooth Using CT.

Study of a Mammoth Tooth Using CT.

ON SMALL CONTINENTAL MAMMOTHS AND DWARFISM

In the evolution of proboscideans, the appearance of dwarf and semi-dwarf forms occurred repeatedly, in different territories and at different times, due to a lack of resources caused by geographic isolation on islands and by landscape isolation on the mainland. Despite a significant amount of information on the insular forms of mammoths and elephants, the question of the relationship between a decrease in body size and morphological changes in the dental system remains a matter of debate. Some data show that dwarfism was accompanied by a decreasing number of plates (lophs) and by tooth enamel thickening. Other data show that changes in the dental system on the islands indicate that the number of plates could either decrease or remain unchanged, or even increase. Taking into account the importance of the number of plates as a diagnostic feature in the species identification of proboscidean taxa and the lack of a consensus on the stability of the trend towards a decrease in the number of plates from large continental ancestors to insular dwarf descendants, we (1) summarize the data on the records of small tooth-mammoths of the genus Mammuthus with a reduced number of plates in sites across northern Eurasia, (2) provide new radiocarbon dates, and (3) consider the number of plates as a possible sign of dwarfization in continental mammoths. The small teeth of the last generation of M. primigenius from the coastal part of northeastern Siberia and a comparison with data from other regions show that the posterior sections of mammoth cheek teeth are the most variable and represent a reduction complex. For the woolly mammoth, reduction primarily affects that part of the crown which became more complex by the gradually increasing number of plates during the phyletic evolution in the Middle to Late Pleistocene. The rapid loss of the evolutionary achievements through reduction is not a unique feature of woolly mammoth teeth. This has been observed in other mammals as well. Similar reduction complexes are observed for the cheek teeth of proboscideans and rodents of the subfamily Arvicolinae, as is shown by a decrease in the number of serially homologous crown elements: plates in proboscideans and pairs of prisms in voles. A comparison of the number of plates with the size of the teeth of M. primigenius suggests that a decrease in the number of dental plates, while retaining other specific features of the tooth, can be used as a criterion for separating semi-dwarf and small specimens of the woolly mammoth. The largest decrease in size of mainland mammoths is observed during warming periods, which also showed significant transformations of landscapes in a reduction of available resources.

High spatial resolution Sr isotope and trace element record of dental enamel mineralization in a woolly mammoth tooth: Implications for paleoecological reconstructions

The isotopic composition and abundance of trace elements in skeletal remains are often used for paleobiological and paleoecological reconstructions. Increasing attention is being paid to dental enamel as the most resilient tissue, but its pristine biogenic signature is obscured to varying degrees by secondary mineralization and diagenesis. We investigated these effects combining histomorphometry with the Sr isotope and trace element distribution in an Upper Paleolithic woolly mammoth molar using laser ablation (MC) ICPMS. We document a 12-year continuous record of seasonal changes in 87Sr/86Sr, Li, Pb and U whose distribution pattern follows incremental enamel growth features of the secretion stage of amelogenesis. Other elements are affected by enamel maturation proceeding along the Retzius lines with a decrease in uptake of Rb, Sr, Ba and/or Mg, an increase in uptake of Mn, and considerable enrichment of Zn. The Sr/Ba ratio is consistent with the seasonal pattern of the secretion stage, indicating a short time gap between the two mineralization phases, estimated to be no more than a few months. The maturation front determined by multi-element 2D mapping penetrates, locally, as far as the inner enamel but generally does not affect the region nearest the enamel-dentine junction, making this the optimal zone for obtaining accurate biogenic data. This allowed the preservation of seasonal fluctuations in Zn and Mg, absent in the regions affected by maturation. We interpret the seasonality as the result of changes in diet and metabolism during cold and warm periods that likely accompanied mammoth migration, as suggested by the parallel changes in the Sr isotopic composition. Diagenesis affected K, Mg and Mn, but only in a narrow zone at the contact with the cementum. The dentine is diagenetically altered but still preserves relics of seasonal compositional cycles, while the cementum is completely equilibrated with the depositional environment.

Comparison of bulk and sequential sampling methodologies on mammoth tooth enamel and their implications in paleoenvironmental reconstructions

Abstract. Mammoth teeth have been widely investigated using stable-isotopic analysis for paleoenvironmental and paleoecological reconstructions due to their large size and frequent discoveries. Many past investigations sampled the tooth enamel with the “bulk” method, which involves drilling one sample from the occlusal surface to the root for each tooth. Some of the more recent studies applied the “sequential” method, with a sequence of samples drilled following the dominant enamel growth direction to produce a time series of isotopic oscillations that reflects high-resolution environmental changes, as well as changes in mammoth dietary behavior. Although both the bulk and mean sequential δ18O values are expected to represent the averaged signal over the time of tooth formation, it is uncertain whether their paleoenvironmental records were formed during similar periods of time. In this study, we applied both sampling methods (sequential drilling first followed by a thin layer of bulk drilling) on the same enamel ridges of multiple mammoth teeth and compared their respective δ18O values. The results indicated that, in most enamel ridges, the bulk samples have more negative δ18O values compared to the average sequential values, and some of the bulk values even fall outside the range of sequential values. The most likely explanation for the differences is the structure and formation stages of enamel that caused uneven distributions of different seasons recorded in the samples. This finding provides insights into current limitations of the two sampling methods and the applicability of cross-method data comparison from past studies.

The Indigenous Paleolithic of the Western Hemisphere

Steeves eloquently reminds us that settler/colonial history is not the only history nor the singular authority on the past. Through a multi-lensed approach, weaving archaeology, sociology, and her own Indigenous traditions, Steeves challenges supporters of the already waning view concerning a panhemispheric cultural group that migrated to the prehistoric Americas. Defining all prehistoric Native Americans as descendants of a singular ancestral Clovis Point people is a gross oversimplification and is not supported by the archaeological evidence, the oral traditions of Indigenous groups, nor by linguistics. Steeves warns that classifying all prehistoric American Indigenous peoples as Clovis (a) wrongly groups them as homogenous, (b) superimposes a single technological categorization on diverse heritages, and (c) forces an untrue, Eurocentric narrative.Though the Indigenous method and theory that Steeves employs includes empirical knowledge and critical thought, her process also recognizes these are not the only systems for knowing the world. Furthermore, she emphasizes that in the Indigenous method, no one owns the knowledge; instead it is relational, providing a corroboration between oral tradition and archaeological record. Steeves presents her work in a way that celebrates the diverse groups often reduced to “Indian” tropes, refuting that these different cultural, heritage, and language groups were all the same; additionally, she is adamant in dispelling the stereotyped myth that Native Americans are anti-science. She frames this conversation in terms of the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (1990) and the important work of returning human remains and funerary objects, including the remains of the Ancient One (Kennewick Man), the reburial of whom a number of Western archaeologists and institutions fought to prevent. Another issue she addresses is the use of arbitrary European nomenclature for groups, lands, flora and fauna, and cultural practices when discussing Indigenous history—instead, she argues, archaeologists and historians should use the names given by Indigenous peoples when referring to Indigenous histories. Steeves claims that expanding how we explain and explore Indigenous histories also expands our understanding of global history.Steeves postulates that there were much earlier and more frequent migrations of people to the Western Hemisphere, and that those who refute this possibility do so from the Clovis First hypothesis, which has never existed save in the minds of historians. Likewise, is it possible that indigenous groups migrated from North America to Asia (the reverse of the commonly affirmed migration pattern)? Steeves, a proponent of the multi-regional hypothesis, finds that human habitation of the Western Hemisphere could go back as far as 130,000 years ago. She investigates why pre-Clovis models have been dismissed by historians since the mid-twentieth century.Intercutting her criticism of the Euro-dominant praxis within archaeology and anthropology, Steeves uses empirical evidence, linguistic evidence, personal narratives, poetry, and Indigenous ways of knowing to express a lucid and thorough critique of commonly held beliefs about history and prehistory. Proposing a holistic approach, she shows a rich relational knowledge contained in traditional peoples’ oral histories stretching to deep time and spaces. Such stories speak of Pleistocene beasts, evidenced by two mammoth teeth kept as sacred objects.In short, Steeves attempts to reclaim the histories of prehistoric Indigenous groups by Indigenous scholars for Indigenous peoples today. In her journey, she shares with us that the stubborn inability of those who refuse a pre-Clovis habitation of the Western Hemisphere have done so not because of the evidence but because it was important to maintain the facade of a people who had an infant culture easily conquered by the older, more dominant, and more established Old World empires. By dehumanizing the Indigenous—then and now—it is possible to rationalize the systematic destruction of those traditional lifeways.Steeves ends her work by calling on scholars to fan the flames of the Eighth Fire—what she calls a healing smoke—which is a place of peace, intersected by settler and Indigenous pasts. Unlike any scholarly work I have enjoyed, Steeves brings an unprecedented life to her claims. Her fire not only challenges what we have said about the past but will also certainly inspire new, vibrant scholarship that breaks down conventions and barriers.

Reconstruction of 26 kyrs palaeoenvironmental history of the Czarny Dunajec Fan – A multiproxy study of the Długopole gravel pit deposits (Western Carpathians, S Poland)

Sedimentological and geochemical records of biogenic and mineral sediments, coupled with palaeobotanical and palaeozoological analysis from the gravel pit in Długopole (Western Carpathians, S Poland) allowed for the reconstruction of climate and palaeoenvironmental changes on the Czarny Dunajec Fan (part of the Orava Basin) during the Upper Plenivistulian - Late Vistulian (Late Glacial) and Holocene to the Northgrippian Age. Frequent climate fluctuations in the Upper Pleniglacial, Late Vistulian and Holocene intensified the accumulation and denudation processes, which led to the formation of the contemporary relief of the Orava Basin, including the creation of the Czarny Dunajec Fan and numerous peat bogs. Radiocarbon dating of wood fragments found in the Długopole gravel pit indicated three intervals of wood debris supply onto the floodplain: 9.5–7.3, 6.4–5.5, and 3.3 kyrs cal BP. Radiocarbon dating of the sediments show that the age of the deposits range from 26.2 (mammoth tusk) to 3.3 (peat) kyrs cal BP. Detailed taphonomic studies of the mammoth tooth revealed the absence of signs of long-distance transport and thus the nature of the local deposition environment. The presence of a pattern of manganese dendrites on the tusk surface indicates a wet, oxidizing, and mildly alkaline environment. A low-energy and calm sedimentary environment with high manganese concentration is confirmed by the results of geochemical analysis.

Experiments in sandscaping: Liminal entanglements on the Norfolk and South Holland Coast

This hybrid creative-critical article explores how new ways of living beyond the current environmental crisis are forged on two sandscaping schemes that have been constructed as new experimental measures against coastal erosion. The Zandmotor, created in 2011, is an artificial peninsula built out of sand on the coast of South Holland. The success of this project inspired a similar sandscaping scheme at Bacton on the coast of Norfolk, constructed in 2019. The strange liminal landscapes that are the result of these projects are not just symbols of adaptive, nature-based water management in times of rising sea levels, they also become time machines, making fossils of different times emerge out of the sand taken from the seabed of the North Sea. In addition, the sandscapes are symbols of the artificialization of the coastal landscape, given the fact that sand suppletions disrupt not only life on the beach, but also destroy much bottom-dwelling life on the seabed from which the sand is harvested. However, these unique liminal landscapes between land and sea also create new ecological opportunities. At the Zandmotor, for example, rare bristle worms and Baltic clams have made their unexpected appearance. Moreover, the sandscape invites people not just to look for fossilized mammoth teeth, but also inspires them to create sense-altering art projects specifically adapted to the unique conditions in the area. In this article, I trace these various significances of both sandscaping schemes and argue that they cannot be reduced to any of these different meanings. Instead, I describe the Zandmotor as an example of Donna Haraway’s idea of ‘staying with the trouble’ (: 4) and Anna Lowenhaupt Tsing’s concept of ‘contaminated diversity’ (: 30). For although enormous amounts of animal and plant life have been destroyed for the creation of the Zandmotor, this does not discredit the fact that this new liminal environment has opened up new ecological opportunities for multispecies flourishing, creating unexpected combinations of landscapes and creatures. These new combinations inspire a shift in thinking about coastal environments and present new ways of living that may emerge beyond the current environmental crisis.

‘Semi‐dwarf’ woolly mammoths from the East Siberian Sea coast, continental Russia

A pioneer comprehensive study of several diminutive last‐generation woolly mammoth teeth (M3) found on the coast of the East Siberian Sea between the mouths of the Alazeya and Malaya Kuropatoch'ya rivers was conducted. Two teeth belonged to one individual. These teeth have a similar lamellar frequency and enamel thickness as teeth of Mammuthus primigenius Blumenbach. The molar crowns from the lower Alazeya region are similar in size to those of the small Late Pleistocene–Holocene mammoths from Wrangel Island. However, the number of plates (17–19, excluding talons) is much lower than that in the teeth of typical Late Pleistocene M. primigenius (23–25). The age data of the examined teeth are beyond the limits of the 14C dating method (>45 000 years BP). Nevertheless, palaeobotanical data allow correlation of the enclosing sediments with the warm Kazantsevo Interglacial (Eemian, MIS 5e) and reconstruction of the average annual temperature, which was warmer than present‐day temperatures. These conditions are confirmed by the δ18O isotopes from the structurally bound carbonate in tooth enamel. The ancient landscape was wetter and more forested than modern landscapes. The diminution of M3 size and loss of posterior plates were a result of the overall decrease in body size, likely in response to landscape change and narrowing of resource space. Mammoths from the lower Alazeya region demonstrate a stage of significant size reduction, although the dwarfing was not finalized. Their teeth are the oldest amongst the small teeth found in west Beringia.

The structure of the lower terraces of the Dniester River valley (on the example of the Vasyliv-Doroshivtsi section)

The whole complex of terraces can be traced in the relief on the Vasyliv-Doroshivtsi area. Well-defined high terraces - XII (jr-kz), XI (bd-sv) and X (bv-br). The middle terraces in this area are narrow, poorly preserved in relief. The inner-canyon part of the Dniester valley is relatively wide, which contributed to the development and preservation of a full complex of lower (late Pleistocene) terraces: the fourth (kd-ts), third (pl-ud; fragmentary), second (vt-bg), first (df-pc) terraces, as well as Holocene high and low floodplains (hl). Researches of features of the structure of low terraces carried out on the basis of a survey of geomorphological surfaces, outcrops of terrace deposits, the analysis of boreholes, fossil vertebrate and mollusc faunas, and also results of long-term observations during archaeological researches of site Doroshivtsi 3. The first above-floodplain terrace (df-pc) is represented by small fragments. It is composed by channel facies of alluvium, represented mainly by pebbles. Above them the floodplain facies - fine- and medium-grained sand, light grey, obliquely and horizontally layered, are bedded. The floodplain alluvium is covered by a low-thickness stratum of loess-like loams (pc). To the west of Doroshivtsi Village, near the Hlynyshche site, the upper layer of sediments is partially destroyed and buried under the sediments of a high floodplain. Only the remains of the lower part of the section are partially present. That is, in this area, the roots of the first terrace serve as the base of the high floodplain. The second terrace (vt-bg) is most clearly manifested morphologically due to the ledge, which stands out quite clearly. It is better developed within the Vasyliv Village. Here it is quite extensive, its surface is planned. In the area of Doroshivtsi, this terrace is narrow, severely damaged, occurs in fragments. The basement of the terrace is located at the height of about 1 m above the current level of the Dniester River. It is composed of dark green-grey argillite and coarse-grained Devonian sandstones. The structure of the terrace is as follows: the channel facies (gravel-pebble deposits with inclusions of boulders and sand aggregate) and powerful floodplain facies of alluvium: rhythmic layers of sands, sands and loams with signs of embryonic soils); complex of fossil soils and forests (forest-like loams) - bg-pc. Numerous remains of molluscs, mega- and microfauna, remains of material culture were found in the terrace deposits (Doroshivtsi 3 site). The third terrace (pl-ud) is weakly expressed and narrow. There are no outcrops of its sediments here and no boreholes. Therefore, currently, its structure in the study area remains unknown. However, in the lower part of the sediments of this terrace during the digging of the well were found fragmented remains of a mammoth (Mammuthus sp.) and a red deer (Cervus elaphus) with traces of disposal (site Vasyliv II). At another location, a mammoth tooth was found, which we identified as Mammuthus primigenius cf. jatzkovi. Fourth terrace (kd-ts). Terrace sediments are exposed to the west of Vasyliv, also discovered by a borehole near the basement of the white-stone temple of the XII-XIII centuries. According to drilling data, the top of gravel here is at the height of 7 m above the boundary level of the Dniester River. Above the gravel are bedded (from bottom to top): a layer of chernozem-like paleosol (pl); the light yellow loess with a columnar structure (ud); brown paleosol (vt); the pale yellow, carbonate loess, with also a columnar structure (bg). According to the terraces' classification by their location in the river valley, low terraces in the study area of the Middle Dniester are incised. According to the genetic classification, they can be considered accumulative, closed- or hidden-socle. Thus, based on the row of data, the peculiarities of the structure of low terraces, the composition of sediments and their approximate geological age have been established. New sections of the second and fourth terraces are described based on the study of outcrops and drilling data. New locations of vertebrate and mollusc fauna have been discovered in the deposits of 2-4th terraces in the village of Vasyliv. The considerable width of the second floodplain terrace in the Vasyliv area in comparison with Doroshivtsi testifies to the prospects of finding here the remains of material culture, similar to the Doroshivtsi-3 site. As a result of research, we established that due to the different history and mechanism of sediment formation, the structure and composition of sediments of the same age terraces may differ. This fact should be considered when allocating terraces and rely not only on the features of the cover part of the sediments but on the set of characteristics of a terrace. The questions of the peculiarities of the fourth and first above-floodplain terraces' structure, as well as the depth of basement of the high floodplain, remain unclear.

The contribution of Late Pleistocene megafauna finds to submerged archaeology and the interpretation of ancient coastal landscapes

In 2013, two Pleistocene megafaunal remains, a single mammoth tooth and a partial juvenile mastodon mandible with teeth were recovered by a scallop-fisherman from two separate locations in the Merrimack River embayment off the coast of New Hampshire and Massachusetts. These specimens follow on previous finds by fishermen in the same locale over the last two decades, as well as numerous other offshore megafauna specimens and prehistoric stone tools, which have occurred in the Gulf of Maine for >50years. This paper examines the value and scientific sampling potential of previously recovered specimens and isolated finds in the Gulf of Maine. Specifically, it discusses isolated finds as indicators of submerged archaeological site preservation in the region, and as data sources that provide information about regional geomorphology, climate conditions, paleogenomics, and species extinctions in the terminal Pleistocene. Furthermore, submerged paleo-deltas, due to their depositional characteristics, are identified to have deeply buried paleosols with significant preservation potential for early human and environmental history. Therefore, the Merrimack River paleo-delta, and similar offshore submerged features elsewhere, serve not only as research opportunities into early human migration and settlement, but are also storehouses of climate and environmental data, which merit special recognition and protection from environmental and man-made activities that may impact or disturb these intact submerged landscapes.

A new elephant fossil from the late Pleistocene of Alghero: The puzzling question of Sardinian dwarf elephants

Endemic elephants, variously reduced in size, have been reported from a number of Mediterranean islands. Most of these originated from the mainland species Palaeoloxodon antiquus. A few dwarf mammoth remains are recorded from Crete and Sardinia. In Sardinia, a largely incomplete skeleton and a few mammoth teeth have been reported from localities believed to range in age from the late middle to the late Pleistocene. The chronology of colonisation by the ancestral species, the actual persistence through time of Mammuthus lamarmorai on the island, and the morphological and dimensional range of the species are, however, poorly known. This research aims to describe a distal portion of a left tibia of a dwarf elephant found in the Alghero area (NW Sardinia), showing some morphological traits and dimensions consistent with those of the endemic Sardinian mammoth (Mammuthus lamarmorai). The main unanswered questions about chronology, colonisation and population dynamics of endemic Sardinian elephants are highlighted and briefly discussed.

Holocene dwarf mammoth teeth from Wrangel Island in the Siberian Arctic

Holocene dwarf mammoth teeth from Wrangel Island in the Siberian Arctic

Unexpectedly early signs of Americans

Humans are thought to have reached the Americas less than 15,000 years ago. But evidence of stone tool use on an animal carcass excavated in California points to a much earlier arrival of human relatives from the genus Homo. See Letter p.479 Around 130,000 years ago, a mastodon died near what is now San Diego, California. Although this seems uncontroversial, Thomas Demere and colleagues present evidence that the carcass had been modified by human beings. Stone hammers and anvils were found alongside mammoth bones and teeth that show signs of having been broken by percussion, presumably to extract bone marrow. Dating the site has been problematic because the bones preserved too little collagen for radiocarbon dating, and optically stimulated luminescence dating put the age at over 60,000–70,000 years. Dates based on the decay of uranium, constrained by the movement of uranium between the environment and the bone, now give an age of around 130,000 years. If confirmed, this would extend tenfold the time that human beings are known to have been present in the Americas and predate the time that modern humans are thought to have first left Africa. The identity of the hominin species—if any—remains unknown.

Late Quaternary environments of the Waco Mammoth site, Texas USA

The Waco Mammoth Site (WMS) in central Texas contains the remains of the largest mammoth herd (Mammuthus columbi) in North America that died in a single catastrophic event. Most mammoths at the site died on a gravel bar of the ancient Bosque River adjacent to a collapsing tributary wall. However, the timing and cause of death of the 26 mammoths documented to date are controversial. The objectives of this research are to: describe and interpret the alluvial stratigraphy and infer the cause of death, employ optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating to determine the timing of death, and analyze stable C isotopes of pedogenic carbonate to infer local plant communities, dietary habits, and summer temperatures. Dating of quartz from seven sediment samples by OSL places the death event to a weighted mean of 66.8±5.0ka. The site is coeval with Marine Oxygen Isotope Stage 4, consistent with our reconstructed mean July temperatures~4°C cooler than today based on a buried soil isotopic transfer function. Our buried soil isotopic interpretation of a dominance of C3 plants is contrary to previous studies of mammoth tooth enamel at the site suggesting a dietary preference for warm season grasses (C4).

Comment on “How do you kill 86 mammoths? Taphonomic investigations of mammoth megasites” by Pat Shipman

1. IntroductionThe idea of “mammoth megasites” during the Gravettian andEpigravettianhaslongbeenacontroversialtopicamongresearchers,with debate over whether they are the result of natural deaths orspecialized human hunting (Haynes, 1991; Soffer et al., 2001;Svoboda et al., 2005). From the same time period there is alsomuchdisagreementaboutthepresenceofpossibledomesticateddogremains, representing initial domestication event(s) across Eurasia.In her recent paper, Shipman (2015) considers these two topics,suggestingtheproliferationofmammothremainsfromanumberofEurasian sites is the result of human hunting, while also suggestingthe hunting of these mammoths was facilitated by the assistance ofsome form of early domesticated dog (referred to as “wolf dogs”).While we strongly support additional research into the issues ofmammoth megasites and initial dog domestication, the evidencepresented by Shipman fails to support the conclusions made. Here,we present issues with the taphonomic considerations, mammothage profiles, and the proposed domesticated canid hypothesis.2. Taphonomic considerationsBefore the age-at-death profiles from mammoth teeth can beused for meaningful statements about behavior, the overall contextof theseassemblages must,andshould, be considered.Taphonomicand site formation history has not been discussed by Shipman insufficientenoughdetailtoascertainthetimingandfunctionofeachof these sites, especially since many appear to have had serveddifferent functions (Bosch, 2012; see also Smith, 2015). Defleshedmammoth bones might have been gathered as raw material fortools andornaments,orasbuildingmaterial(e.g.Sofferetal.,2001;Niven, 2006), as has been suggested for Predmosti and Milovice(Musil, 1968; Brugere and Fontana, 2009). For example, extensivegeoarchaeological work has shown that the Berelekh mammothbone bed, which Shipman has suggested may be an example of‘repeated, non-selective hunting’ (page 3), actually consists of aseries of natural deposits unrelated to the Berelekh archaeologicalsite, though the human occupants later exploited the raw materialas a resource (Pitulko, 2011; see also Pitulko et al., 2014).The mammoth age profiles and open-air exposure of these sitessuggest that faunal assemblages from these localities reflect time-averaged palimpsests, perhaps resulting from single kill eventsand a repeated accumulation of faunal material at these locations(e.g. Bosch, 2012; Smith, 2012). Haynes (1991) discussed variationbetween age profiles, particularly between palimpsest and livepopulations, noting that even though two profiles may appearsimilar, their “meaning” may reflect the opposite. Alongside thetime-averaged quality of many of the faunal assemblages, Shipman(2015) does not provide a structured and detailed taphonomicanalysis in support of the model proposed by the mammoth ageprofiles. The paper has not considered the depth and range of timerepresentedateachofthesesitesandwhetheranalogousanalyticalunits are actually being compared. Failing to contextualize ageprofiles from teeth alongside the survival of postcranial elementsprevents a more accurate assessment of either selective transportordestruction,orboth.Whilequantityofpost-cranialmaterialmaybe reduced (compared to dental fragments), these portions couldprovide useful taphonomic data about seasonal use of sites andwhether the mammoth assemblage may have suffered some formofpreorpost-depositionaldisturbance.Thoughmammothremainsundoubtedly dominate these sites, a useful comparative perspec-tive could be gleaned from considering the other fauna from thesesites; in particular the proportion of canids to other carnivores.Indeed, given the importance of “wolf dogs” for this model, it iscurious that no information was provided in terms of the propor-tion and distribution of carnivore modifications. Without data ontaphonomic agents, including human and carnivore modifications,it is difficult to compare and contrast the assemblages in themanner presented by Shipman.3. Mammoth age-at-death profilesAs Shipman states, statistical evaluation of the data onmammoth age-at-death profiles is needed, however there seem tobe some issues with the raw data and statistical tests presented inthe original paper. No raw data is provided for the numbers of

Not one but two mammoth hunting strategies in the Gravettian of the Pavlov Hills area (southern Moravia)

In southern Moravia (Czech Republic), the Gravettian groups based part of their economic system on mammoth exploitation between 29 and 24,000 uncal. BP. The origin of mammoth bone accumulations at several sites of this area has been debated since the discovery of Předmosti in the middle of the 19th century. Study of the Milovice faunal remains demonstrated that hunting was the main, if not the only, procurement pattern. Considering the published data from Pavlov I (Moravia) and the reconstructed age profiles based on mammoth teeth, we suggest the proboscidean was hunted at that site. More unexpectedly, two hunting strategies have been identified in the Pavlov Hills area: one affecting subadults and adults, and the second one affecting young and subadult individuals. Chronology and the physical condition of the mammoth population are not convincing arguments to explain such a difference. Human behaviour was involved, and we suggest economic goals related to mammoth resources were the reasons for such a hunting selection. Nevertheless, it is unclear whether season or human group identity could have produced this behaviour.

Mammoth tooth enamel growth rates inferred from stable isotope analysis and histology

Mammoth (Mammuthus sp.) teeth are relatively abundant in Quaternary deposits from Eurasia and North America, and their isotopic compositions can be used to reconstruct past seasonal patterns in precipitation, diet, and migration. Strategies for collecting and interpreting such data, however, are strongly dependent on growth rates, which can vary among species, individuals, and within teeth. In this study, we use histological and isotopic measurements to determine enamel growth rates for a Columbian mammoth (Mammuthus columbi) tooth in two directions. Using histology, the growth rate through the enamel thickness (ET; perpendicular to the height of the tooth) is estimated at 0.8 to 1.5mm/yr. Isotopic sampling through the innermost 0.36mm of the ET recovered less than half a period of variation (i.e., half an inferred year of growth), which is consistent with the histological estimate for ET growth rate. A combination of histological and isotopic measurements suggests that the enamel extension rate (growth in the height of the tooth) is 13–14mm/yr. Knowledge of enamel growth rates should improve the design and interpretation of future isotopic studies of mammoth teeth. The combination of histological and isotopic measurements may also prove useful in determining growth rates for other extinct taxa.

Investigating climate at the Upper Palaeolithic site of Kraków Spadzista Street (B), Poland, using oxygen isotopes

Between 50,000 and 20,000 years ago, Europe experienced a series of rapid climate change events known as the Dansgaard–Oeschger cycles, which may have made areas of northern Europe more attractive for occupation by early modern humans at certain times than at others. This paper investigates when humans were occupying northern Europe in relation to these climatic changes at the archaeological site of Kraków Spadzista Street (B), by applying oxygen isotope analysis of mammoth tooth enamel carbonates (δ18O and δ13C) found at the site. The new isotopic data suggest that mean annual temperatures at Kraków Spadzista were 4–9 C° colder than present and, based on comparisons with previously published isotopic data for mammoth in Europe, the Kraków assemblage most likely formed during a cold Dansgaard–Oeschger event. This suggests modern humans were able to occupy and survive in this area of northern Europe during the harsh cold phases that affected Europe at this time.

Oxygen isotope values of precipitation and the thermal climate in Europe during the middle to late Weichselian ice age

The oxygen isotope compositions of 28 mammoth tooth enamel samples from Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland and Denmark provide new quantitative records of the middle to late Weichselian climate in northern Europe. The new δ 18O data was combined with records of oxygen isotope values from earlier investigations on European mammoth tooth enamel and palaeogroundwaters to study the spatial patterns and temporal variations in the oxygen isotope composition of precipitation and the thermal climate over much of Europe. The reconstructed geographical distribution of δ 18O in precipitation during 52–24 ka reflects the progressive isotopic depletion of air masses moving northeast, consistent with a westerly source of moisture for the entire region, and a circulation pattern similar to that of the present-day. Regional long-term average δ 18O w values were 0.6–4.1‰ lower than at present, the largest changes recorded for the currently maritime influenced southern Sweden and the Baltic region. The application of regionally varied δ/ T-slopes, estimated from palaeogroundwater data and modern correlations, yield reasonable estimates of glacial surface temperatures in Europe and imply 2–9 °C lower long-term mean annual surface temperatures during the glacial period.

MIS 3 mammoth remains from Sweden—implications for faunal history, palaeoclimate and glaciation chronology

The distribution of low-arctic megafaunal remains in time and space from the area previously covered by the Scandinavian Ice Sheet (SIS) suggests the presence of breeding mammoth populations in the circum-Baltic region during the time interval from 44 to 26ka ago. The transport history of 30 mammoth teeth and bones from southern and north-central Sweden was estimated and the remains were subjected to osteological analyses and 14C dating. Oxygen isotope analyses of tooth enamel indicate a palaeoclimate considerably more homogenous than that experienced in Sweden today, showing moderate north–south gradients in the δ18O value of precipitation and temperature. In general, the results support the model of restricted ice sheet distribution during the second half of the Middle Weichselian. The clear discrepancy in the inferred absence of glaciation in the central Swedish uplands and the Baltic basin as evidenced by the Swedish mammoth data versus the Danish OSL-based glaciation chronology in the period from 40 to 30ka ago is discussed in the light of radiocarbon calibration and glacial dynamics.