Maldives Archipelago Research Articles

Dolomite occurrence within drift deposits, Maldives archipelago

Considerable attention has been dedicated to the sedimentological processes associated with carbonate drift and contourite deposits, but a noticeable gap exists in the understanding of the diagenetic aspects of those deposits, especially dolomitization. This study presents an examination of dolomites from Middle to Late Miocene drift deposits collected during IODP Expedition 359 to the Maldives archipelago. Multiple geochemical parameters and petrographic analysis are used to explore the potential role of closed versus open system dolomitization in the two oldest drift sequences, which are overlain by a multimillion year-long hiatus. Overall, dolomite abundance is variable, but 50 % to nearly 100 % in a 30 m thick interval below the unconformity surface at one of the examined sites. The dolomite in the study interval consists of very fine-to-fine-sized crystalline dolomite cements and mimetically replaced dolomite grains. All dolomite is non-stoichiometric (mean 42.7 ± 2.0 mol% MgCO3) and mostly poorly ordered. Geochemical attributes include relatively invariant δ13C (+1.3 ‰ to +1.7 ‰ VPDB) and relatively high Sr concentrations in dolomite cements (mean 505 ppm) and dolomitized grains (mean 784 ppm). δ18O values and the constraints of burial histories indicate dolomitization in normal marine seawater at burial depths of 0 to 300 m and temperatures of ∼10 °C–14 °C below an ocean water column 100 to 400 m deep. Sr-isotope ages suggest dolomitization of the most extensively dolomitized interval below the unconformity occurred between 12.3 Ma and 6.7 Ma. Overall, the geochemical data and previously published δ34SCAS data suggest a closed, diffusion-dominated system created most of the dolomite. However, the youngest dolomite's age and bulk rock Sr isotope ages of calcitic rocks at the base of the drift deposits can only be explained by the advective flux of seawater through all the drift deposits. Furthermore, the geological context, including permeable facies, ocean current patterns, and other indicators, such as the absence of hardground or permeability barriers, suggests that some open system dolomitization may have also occurred.

Application of non-lethal bioSPME-LC-MS/MS for the detection of human pharmaceuticals in soft corals: A survey at the North Nilandhe atoll (Maldives)

At present the information regarding the occurrence of human pharmaceuticals (PhaCs) in coral reefs and their potential impacts on the associated fauna is limited. To optimize the collection of data in these delicate environments, we employed a solid-phase microextraction (bioSPME) and liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) procedure that enabled in vivo determinations in soft corals. Specifically, we researched the antibiotics Ofloxacin Sulfamethoxazole and Clarithromycin, the anti-inflammatory Diclofenac Propyphenazone Ketoprofen and Amisulpride, the neuroactive compounds Gabapentin-lactam, the beta-blocker Metoprolol and the antiepileptic Carbamazepine. Reproducibility was between 2.1% and 9.9% and method detection limits LODs) were between 0.2 and 1.6 ng/g and LOQs between 0.8 and 5.4 mg/g. The method was then applied to establish a baseline for the occurrence of these compounds in the Maldivian archipelago. Colonies of Sarcophyton sp. and Sinularia sp. were sampled along an inner-outer reef transect. Five of the ten targeted PhaCs were identified, and 40% of the surveyed coral colonies showed the occurrence of at least one of the selected compounds. The highest concentrations were found inside the atoll rim. Oxoflacin (9.5 ± 3.9 ng/g) and Ketoprofen (4.5 ± 2.3 ng/g) were the compounds with the highest average concentrations. Outside the atoll rim, only one sample showed contamination levels above the detection limit. No significant differences were highlighted among the two surveyed soft coral species, both in terms of average concentrations and bioconcentration factors (BCFs).

Sea-level and monsoonal control on the Maldives carbonate platform (Indian Ocean) over the last 1.3 million years

Abstract. The Maldives Archipelago (Indian Ocean), composed of two rows of atolls that enclose an inner sea, offers an excellent study site to explore the forcings of carbonate production at platforms. Glacial–interglacial sea-level changes have been claimed to be the main factor controlling the carbonate platform factories; however, climatic factors may also have an impact. In this work we used geochemical compositional records, obtained by X-ray fluorescence (XRF) core-scanning from the International Ocean Discovery Program (IODP) Site U1467 in the Maldives Inner Sea, to analyze the orbitally driven fluctuations on the carbonate production and export from the neritic environment into the Maldives Inner Sea over the last 1.3 million years. High Sr aragonite-rich carbonates (HSAC) from neritic settings were deposited in the Maldives Inner Sea during sea-level highstand intervals, increasing the Sr/Ca values. In contrast, low Sr/Ca values are observed coincident with sea-level lowstand periods, suggesting that large areas of the atolls were exposed or unable to grow, and therefore, there was a demise in the carbonate production and sediment export to the Maldives Inner Sea. However, comparison of the Sr/Ca values and the sea-level reconstructions for different interglacial periods before and after the mid-Brunhes event (MBE, ∼ 430 ka) indicates that sea level is not the only factor controlling the production of HSAC during sea-level highstands. The study of monsoon and primary productivity proxies (Fe-normalized, Fe/K, and Br-normalized records) from the same site suggests that the intensity of the summer monsoon and the Indian Ocean dipole probably modulated the carbonate production at the atolls. Moreover, Marine Isotope Stage 11 stands out as a period with high sea level and extraordinary carbonate production in the Maldives platform. This outstanding carbonate production in the Maldives atolls (and in other low-latitude carbonate platforms) probably contributed to the mid-Brunhes dissolution event through a strong shelf-to-basin fractionation of carbonate deposition.

Nearshore tsunami amplitudes across the Maldives archipelago due to worst-case seismic scenarios in the Indian Ocean

Abstract. The Maldives face the threat of tsunamis from a multitude of sources. However, the limited availability of critical data, such as bathymetry (a recurrent problem for many island nations), has meant that the impact of these threats has not been studied at an island scale. Conducting studies of tsunami propagation at the island scale but across multiple atolls is also a challenging task due to the large domain and high resolution required for modelling. Here we use a high-resolution bathymetry dataset of the Maldives archipelago, as well as corresponding high numerical model resolution, to carry out a scenario-based tsunami hazard assessment for the entire Maldives archipelago to investigate the potential impact of plausible far-field tsunamis across the Indian Ocean at the nearshore island scales across the atolls. The results indicate that the bathymetry of the atolls, which are characterized by very steep boundaries offshore, is extremely efficient in absorbing and redirecting incoming tsunami waves. Results also highlight the importance that local effects have in modulating tsunami amplitude nearshore, including the location of the atoll in question, the location of a given island within the atoll, and the distance of that island to the reef, as well as a variety of other factors. We also find that the refraction and diffraction of tsunami waves within individual atolls contribute to the maximum tsunami amplitude patterns observed across the islands in the atolls. The findings from this study contribute to a better understanding of tsunamis across complex atoll systems and will help decision and policy makers in the Maldives assess the potential impact of tsunamis across individual islands. An online tool is provided which presents users with a simple interface, allowing the wider community to browse the simulation results presented here and assess the potential impact of tsunamis at the local scale.

Widespread Occurrence of Coral Growth Anomalies in the Republic of Maldives

In the last decades, there has been a concerning increase in the frequency and severity of coral disease outbreaks on a global scale, resulting in significant damage to the coral reef ecosystem and biodiversity. Growth anomalies (GAs) have been increasingly observed, with significantly higher occurrences in larger and older coral colonies compared to their smaller counterparts. However, there is a notable lack of knowledge and reports regarding growth anomalies in the Maldivian region. Here, we provide the first evidence of four distinct growth anomalies on three coral species, respectively on Acropora sp., Montipora sp., and Pachyseris speciosa, observed across four different locations across three atolls within the Maldivian Archipelago.

Migratory patterns of two major influenza virus host species on tropical islands.

Animal migration is a major driver of infectious agent dispersal. Duck and seabird migrations, for instance, play a key role in the spatial transmission dynamics and gene flow of avian influenza viruses (AIV), worldwide. On tropical islands, brown and lesser noddies (Anous stolidus and Anous tenuirostris) may be important AIV hosts, but the lack of knowledge on their migratory behaviour limits our understanding of virus circulation in island networks. Here we show that high connectivity between islands generated by non-breeding dispersive behaviours may be a major driver in the spread and the maintenance of AIV among tropical islands of the western Indian Ocean. Tracking data highlight two types of dispersive behaviours during the non-breeding season: birds either staying in the vicinity of their breeding ground (on Bird Island, Seychelles), or moving to and roosting on other islands in the western Indian Ocean. Migrant birds used a wide range of roosting places from the Tanzanian coasts to the Maldives archipelago and Tromelin Island. Epidemiological data confirm that brown and lesser noddies are major hosts for AIV, although significant variations of seroprevalence between species suggest that other biological and ecological drivers could be involved in virus infection and transmission dynamics.

Recent benthic foraminiferal assemblages and sedimentary facies from two atolls of Maldivian Archipelago (Indian Ocean): Reef and seagrass indicators

The Maldives Archipelago is an isolated tropical carbonate platform in the Indian Ocean that includes diverse reef and perireef modern environments. We provide a study of benthic foraminiferal assemblages from seagrass and macroalgae dominated habitat and from unvegetated environments.A total of 252 species of benthic foraminifera were identified from 35 samples and biotic indexes were calculated. The assemblages are dominated by genus Amphistegina, and its spatial distribution appears related to depth and seagrass cover, but it is also influenced by hydrodynamic energy.Multivariate analysis distinguished six principal assemblages, being A. lobifera-A. radiata assemblage associated with unvegetated seabed from 15 to 76 m water depth (mwd).The study of recent tropical vegetated and unvegetated benthic associations is also useful for paleoecological and paleoenvironmental interpretations. The foraminiferal indexes (FI and ILS) are calculated to assess the health of reefal communities and compared with those given by previous works in the investigated areas.

A New Species of Megastigmus and First Record of the Genus and Megastigmidae Family from the Paradise of the Maldives Archipelago.

Megastigmidae comprises more than 200 species in 12 genera. Megastigmus has a worldwide distribution with more than 150 species. Over 80% of these species are recorded from the Australian and Palearctic region, with a few from Afrotropical and Oriental regions, but none from the Neotropical region. We describe a new species of Megastigmus obtained from the seeds of Pemphis acidula in the Maldives Archipelago. This is the first mention of Megastigmidae having as a host plant a species from Lythraceae. It is also the first recorded association of Chalcidoidea with the genus Pemphis and the first mention of Megastigmidae and Megastigmus in the Maldives Archipelago. We provide a detailed description of the species, focusing on its morphology, using both light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Megastigmus irinae Popescu n. sp. is a strictly phytophagous species, with each larva consuming a single seed. Currently, M. irinae is an endemic species found only in the Maldives Archipelago. However, considering the distribution of its host plant, P. acidula, which ranges from East Africa to Southeast Asia, Australia, Micronesia, and French Polynesia, we anticipate that future research could significantly expand the known range of this interesting new species.

Further validation of the estimates of the downwelling solar radiation at ground level in cloud-free conditions provided by the McClear service: the case of Sub-Saharan Africa and the Maldives Archipelago

Abstract. Being part of the Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service (CAMS), the McClear service provides estimates of the downwelling shortwave irradiance and its direct and diffuse components received at ground level in cloud-free conditions, with inputs on ozone, water vapor and aerosol properties from CAMS. McClear estimates have been validated over several parts of the world by various authors. This article makes a step forward by comparing McClear estimates to measurements performed at 44 ground-based stations located in Sub-Saharan Africa and the Maldives Archipelago in the Indian Ocean. The global irradiance received on a horizontal surface (G) and its direct component received at normal incidence (BN) provided by the McClear-v3 service were compared to 1 min measurements made in cloud-free conditions at the stations. The correlation coefficient is greater than 0.96 for G, whereas it is greater than 0.70 at all stations but five for BN. The mean of G is accurately estimated at stations located in arid climates (BSh, BWh, BSk, BWk) and temperate climates without a dry season and a hot or warm summer (Cfa, Cfb) or with a dry and hot summer (Csa) with a relative bias in the range [−1.5, 1.5] % with respect to the means of the measurements at each station. It is underestimated in tropical climates of monsoon type (Am) and overestimated in tropical climates of savannah type (Aw) and temperate climates with a dry winter and hot (Cwa) or warm (Cwb) summer. The McClear service tends to overestimate the mean of BN. The standard deviation of errors for G ranges between 13 W m−2 (1.3 %) and 31 W m−2 (3.7 %) and that for BN ranges between 31 W m−2 (3.0 %), and 70 W m−2 (7.9 %). Both offer small variations in time and space. A review of previous works reveals no significant difference between their results and ours. This work establishes a general overview of the performances of the McClear service.

Photographic Checklist, DNA Barcoding, and New Species of Sea Slugs and Snails from the Faafu Atoll, Maldives (Gastropoda: Heterobranchia and Vetigastropoda)

Baseline biodiversity data are key for ecological and evolutionary studies and are especially relevant for areas such as the Maldivian Archipelago in the Indian Ocean, which can act as a stepping-stone for the transport of widely distributed marine species. We surveyed the islands and reefs of the Faafu and Malé Atolls with snorkeling and scuba diving, collecting the two gastropod subclasses, Heterobranchia and Vetigastropoda. Our inventory comprises 104 species photographed alive to create an identification guide. We also provide COI barcodes for most species, adding novel sequence data for the Maldivian malacofauna. Half of our species represent new records for the Maldives, emphasizing how much diversity remains to be discovered. Species distributions reflect ecological rarity, with almost 60% of taxa only found in one site. We also compiled a comprehensive checklist of heterobranchs and vetigastropods of the Maldives based on literature records, resulting in 320 species, which, together with barcoding data, indicate several potential cryptic species in the Indo-Pacific. Six new species are described, the nudibranchs Limenandra evanescenti n. sp., Eubranchus putnami n. sp., Sakuraeolis marhe n. sp., Moridilla maldivensis n. sp., Tergiposacca perspicua n. sp., and the sacoglossan Costasiella fridae n. sp.

Taxonomic and functional nematode diversity in Maldivian coral degradation zones: patterns across reef typologies and depths.

The intensification of dredging and infilling activities in lagoons and on coral reefs are common practices in the Maldivian archipelago, and these activities alter the biodiversity of the bioconstructors and the functioning of the ecosystem. The alteration of environmental factors can also affect inconspicuous fauna, such as free-living nematodes. The implications of a reduction in biodiversity may transcend decreased taxonomic diversity, resulting in changes in functional diversity and redundancy; however, how the environmental conditions and human pressure affects the functionality of nematodes in Maldivian coral degradation zones (CDZs) remain poorly understood. In this paper, we examined changes in the taxonomic and functional diversity and the functional redundancy in nematode communities regarding the geographic location (atolls with various levels of human pressure), the exposure and topography of the reef (lagoon and ocean), the slope of the reef, and the depth. The functional diversity and redundancy were evaluated by considering two main biological traits of nematodes: i) the trophic strategy, and ii) the life strategy. The extremely high number of nematode genera observed in the Maldives is supported by the high complexity of the carbonate sediments. The reef exposure and depth were the most relevant environmental factors that influenced the taxonomic and functional diversity. The functional diversity, according to the trophic strategies, mirrored the taxonomic diversity because the adaptive plasticity of nematode buccal cavity structures is closely associated with the high biodiversity of the phylum. The high abundance of k-strategists in ocean reefs may indicate a higher ecological quality when compared to lagoon reefs; however, the absence of significant differences in life strategy functional diversity and functional redundancy indicates that a recovery process is underway. Analyses of nematode communities should be combined with standard investigations of reef bioconstructors during monitoring activities to assess the vulnerability of CDZ systems to future disturbances and facilitate the adoption of the most appropriate preventative actions.

Biogeochemical niches and trophic plasticity of shallow and mesophotic corals recovering from mass bleaching

AbstractThe differential survival of corals and their recovery from oceanic thermal stress is related not only to coral bleaching susceptibility but also physiological plasticity including trophic strategy. We investigated post‐bleaching event recovery of three morphologically diverse, reef‐building coral species from shallow (10 m) and mesophotic (30 m) reefs across the Maldives archipelago. Trophic plasticity was evaluated by carbon and nitrogen contents and stable isotopes of coral hosts and their algal symbionts including isotopic niche position and size. Seawater temperatures recorded before, during, and after the mass coral bleaching event revealed significant thermal stress in both shallow and mesophotic reefs although cumulative warming appeared lower in mesophotic reefs (9.0 vs. 5.9 degree heating weeks, respectively). Ten months following thermal stress, increased nitrogen stable isotope (δ15N) values in all three coral host species without concurrent changes in water column δ15N indicated enhanced heterotrophic feeding during thermal stress and/or recovery. Host C:N decreased in all species post‐bleaching event while host carbon content (%C) decreased in shallow, more autotrophic populations of two species, suggesting prolonged stress. Host carbon stable isotope (δ13C) values were lower in mesophotic, more heterotrophic populations of two species compared to shallow counterparts. Biogeochemical and isotopic niches both showed different niche specialization among the three species. Consistent shifts in host isotopic niche positions support a conserved host response mechanism (heterotrophy) to oceanic thermal stress, but shallow and mesophotic corals still had not fully recovered almost one year after the bleaching event.

First detection of microplastics in reef-building corals from a Maldivian atoll

The presence of microplastics in the world's oceans and their effects on marine habitats are highly concerning. As suspension-feeders, corals are very exposed to microplastics, compromising the health of coral reef ecosystems. In this study we surveyed for the first time the presence of microplastics in Maldivian reef-building corals. Aiming to determine the influence of exposure and depth on microplastic distribution, analyses were carried out on 38 individuals belonging to three different species. 58% of the investigated colonies resulted contaminated with particles within the 25–150 μm size range. The maximum concentration was encountered in a Pocillopora verrucosa colony sampled from a shallow inner reef (8.9 particles/g of coral). No significant differences in microplastic concentration were observed between different depths, exposures, sites and species. Overall, this study confirmed microplastic presence in coral reefs of the Maldivian archipelago including foundation species.

Ostracod response to monsoon and OMZ variability over the past 1.2 Myr

We present the first continuous middle through late Pleistocene record of fossil ostracods from the Maldives in the northern Indian Ocean, derived from sediment cores taken at Site U1467 by Expedition 359 of the International Ocean Discovery Program (IODP). Site U1467 lies at 487 m water depth in the Inner Sea of the Maldives archipelago, an ideal place for studying the effects of the South Asian Monsoon (SAM) system on primary productivity, intermediate depth ocean circulation, and the regional oxygen minimum zone (OMZ). The Inner Sea acts as a natural sediment trap that has undergone continuous sedimentation for millions of years with minor terrestrial influence. Our record spans from Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 35 to the present, covering the mid-Pleistocene transition (1.2–0.6 Ma) and the Mid-Brunhes Event (MBE, at ~480 ka) the time when ice age cycles transitioned from occurring every 40,000 years to 100,000 years. The ostracod data is interpreted alongside the existing datasets from the same site of sedimentological (grain-size) and XRF-elemental analyses, and new organic biomarker data also from Site U1467. These datasets support the paleoenvironmental interpretation of the ostracod assemblages. Ostracods are abundant and diverse, displaying a prominent change in faunal composition at the MBE related to the increase in the amplitude of glacial-interglacial cycles, which deeply affected the monsoon system and thereby the past oceanographic conditions of the Maldives Inner Sea. Furthermore, ostracods exhibit distinctly different assemblages across glacial-interglacial cycles, particularly after the MBE, and these changes convincingly correspond to variability of the OMZ. Glacial periods are characterized by ostracod indicators of well‑oxygenated bottom water due to the intensification of the winter monsoon and the contraction of the OMZ. Abundant psychrospheric ostracods during glacials suggests that a southern sourced water mass, such as Antarctic Intermediate Water (AAIW) and/or Subantarctic Mode water, bathed the Maldives Inner Sea during glacial periods. In contrast, interglacial stages are characterized by ostracod species and biomarker data that indicate low-oxygen conditions and sluggish bottom water circulation pointing to an expansion of the regional OMZ due to the strengthening of the summer monsoon. Our results highlight the sensitivity of ostracods to oceanographic and climate variability.

Detection of plastic particles in marine sponges by a combined infrared micro-spectroscopy and pyrolysis-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry approach

Plastic pollution threatens the marine environment, especially due to the adverse effects caused by micro and nano particles interacting with the marine biota. In order to provide reliable data regarding micro and nanoplastic contamination and the related impacts, efficient analytical solutions are needed. We developed a new analysis workflow that uses marine sponges to monitor plastic pollution by characterizing the plastic particles accumulated in their tissue. Specimens of cf. Haliclona (Haplosclerida) were sampled in the Maldivian archipelago. The aim was to optimize the method and to carry out a pilot study of the contamination of the related reef habitat. Particles were isolated, size fractioned, counted and submitted to morphological and chemical characterization. The constituting polymer was identified by infrared microspectroscopy for particles >25 μm, and by pyrolysis coupled with gas chromatography mass spectrometry for those <25 μm. Method recoveries were between 87 and 83% and limits of quantitation (LOQs) were between 6.6 and 30.2 ng/g. Analyses showed that 70% of the sponges presented plastic contamination, with an average of 1.2 particles/g tissue for the 25–150 μm size range, and a total plastic concentration of up to 4.8 μg/g in the 0.2–25 μm size range, with polyolefin being the most represented polymer in both size ranges. Overall, the study demonstrated the reliability of the proposed analytical workflow and of the use of sponges as biosamplers for plastic particles.

Excavations on the Coral Mosques of the Maldives

Abstract This report presents the results of an archaeological mission done in the Maldives archipelago located to the south-west of India, in the Indian Ocean. In November 2017, we carried out archaeological excavations and surveys as well as collected oral traditions on two sites, the Fandiyaaru Mosque and Koagannu Cemetery in Hulhumeeddhoo town on Addu Atoll and the Friday Mosque of Fenfushi on Alifu Dhaalu Atoll. Two outcomes were expected from our mission: first, to provide new scientific data on the coral mosques of the Maldives in order to improve the chances of success of nomination of the mosques on the World Heritage List of UNESCO; then to support the conservation project of the Maldivian government and international organisations such as UNESCO and the World Monuments Fund (WMF). One major question during our excavation was the continuity of the settlements from pre-Islamic cultures and influences from Buddhist architecture on local Islamic architecture.

The ‘other’ within: Striving for health equity in the Maldives Eva-Maria

Relations within are quintessential in anthropological fieldwork — and in archipelagos in particular. The domestic sea is incorporated in the national consciousness connecting an archipelagic nation but distinguishing individual islands with a strong emphasis on the centre. The Maldivian archipelago displays this spatial organization of a socio-political and economic centre and a dependent island periphery. In the national consciousness, the capital island, Male', contrasts with “the islands” — a distinction which is particularly evident in the public health sphere, where striving for health equity encounters geographical and socio-political obstacles. Using the topic of the inherited blood disorder thalassaemia as a magnifying lens, this paper asks how different actors are making sense of health inequities between central and outer islands in the Maldivian archipelago. Intra-archipelagic and international mobilities add to the complexities of topological relations, experiences, and representations within this multi-island assemblage. Yet, my study of archipelagic health relations is not confined to a mere outside look at the construction of the ‘island other’ within the archipelagic community. It is a situated investigative gaze on disjunctures, connections, and entanglements, reflecting my methodological-theoretical attempt to unravel my own involvement in island–island relations and representations — my being entangled while investigating entanglements.

Organic enrichment can increase the impact of microplastics on meiofaunal assemblages in tropical beach systems

The cumulative impact of microplastic and organic enrichment is still largely unknown. Here, we investigated the microplastic contamination, the organic enrichment and their effects on meiofaunal distribution and diversity in two islands of the Maldivian archipelago: one more pristine, and another strongly anthropized. Field studies were coupled with manipulative experiments in which microplastic polymers were added to sediments from the non-anthropized island (i.e., without organic enrichment) to assess the relative effect of microplastic pollution on meiofauna assemblages. Our results reveal that the impact of microplastic contamination on meiofaunal abundance and taxa richness was more significant in the anthropized island, which was also characterized by a significant organic enrichment. Meiofauna exposed experimentally to microplastic contamination showed: i) the increased abundance of opportunistic nematodes and copepods and ii) a shift in the trophic structure, increasing relevance in epistrate-feeder nematodes. Based on all these results, we argue that the coexistence of chronic organic enrichment and microplastics can significantly increase the ecological impacts on meiofaunal assemblages. Since microplastic pollution in the oceans is predicted to increase in the next decades, its negative effects on benthic biodiversity and functioning of tropical ecosystems are expected to worsen especially when coupled with human-induced eutrophication. Urgent actions and management plans are needed to avoid the cumulative impact of microplastic and organic enrichment.

Lag State Jurisdiction of the Maldives: Protection and Preservation of the Marine Environment from Vessel Source Pollution

The Maldivian archipelago is located in an area with an immensely high risk of vessel source pollution. Due to the low-lying, scattered island temperament and lack of clean-up technology and resources, if a maritime casualty were to occur in and around the Maldives, the country may not survive, at least socio-economically. Under the international legal framework, flag States have a legal responsibility to ensure that their vessels comply with international law, wherever the vessels are located. This article identifies and analyses the gaps between the international legal framework and the national legal framework for the protection and preservation of the marine environment from vessel source pollution, applicable to the flag States of Maldives.

Review of the cardinalfishes of the genus Cercamia (Percomorpha: Apogonidae) of the Red Sea and Indian Ocean with descriptions of three new species.

The representatives of Cercamia from the Indian Ocean including Red Sea are reviewed and three new species are described: Cercamia spio n. sp., formerly known as C. eremia (Allen, 1987), is described from 14 specimens, 1733 mm SL, collected in 1015 meters from northern (Duba) to central (Jeddah) Saudi Arabia and from Jezirat Faraun, Egypt. It also has been photographed from the Gulf of Aqaba (Dahab, Egypt) and El Quseir (Mangrove Bay, Egypt). The new species is distinguished from other Indian Ocean Cercamia in having fewer developed gill rakers on lower limb (usually 11 versus usually 1213) and fewer anal-fin rays (11 versus usually 1213). Another new species, Cercamia laamu, n. sp., is described only from the Maldives and Chagos Archipelago based on five specimens 16.030.5 mm SL. It differs from all Indian Ocean Cercamia in having more greater number of the second dorsal-fin rays (10 versus usually 9), and a translucent body devoid of reddish marks versus small reddish dots and crisscross lines. The third new species, Cercamia mascarene, n. sp., is described from 40 specimens 1936 mm SL, from Rodrigues Island, Mauritius. It differs from Cercamia eremia in having a greater number of developed gill rakers on the lower limb of the first gill arch (usually 13 versus usually 12). Free neuromasts and cephalic pores are illustrated for Cercamia mascarene and free neuromasts on the body and caudal fin are illustrated for Japanese specimens of C. cf. eremia. New diagnoses are provided for Cercamia cladara, the type species of the genus, and C. eremia. A map of collection locations for species of Cercamia is presented to show the breath of known occurrences in the Red Sea and Indian Ocean. A new morphologic diagnosis is provided for Cercamia. A phylogenetic analysis of the barcoding portion of the mitochondrial COI gene, including all available sequences from members of the genus Cercamia, displays a much higher species diversity than expected, with high levels of divergence among recognized and undescribed species. A key to the described Indian Ocean species is provided.