Maladaptive Outcomes Research Articles

Emotional Exhaustion and Motivation in Physical Education Teachers: A Variable-Centered and Person-Centered Approach

Burnout in teachers is related to different maladaptive outcomes. This study aimed at exploring the relationship between emotional exhaustion and motivation to teach in 93 physical education teachers. Results showed that teachers report more emotional exhaustion when they are less autonomously motivated, while the opposite relationship was found for controlled motivation. Next, four motivational profiles were identified by means of cluster analyses: (a) a relative controlled group, (b) a relative lowly motivated group, (c) a relative autonomous group, and (d) a relative highly motivated group. The controlled group reported most emotional exhaustion, whereas the relative autonomous and highly motivated group had the lowest scores on emotional exhaustion. The results indicate that being autonomously motivated may function as a “buffer” against the development of emotional exhaustion. This implicates that it is important for politicians, directors, teachers, and teacher educators to consider teachers’ type of motivation to teach to prevent emotional exhaustion.

Visual cortex processing in autism spectrum disorders (Commentary on Freyet al.)

Brain plasticity is a double-edged sword. It allows for individuals to learn and adapt to their environment, but peculiarities may also alter the brain and contribute to maladaptive outcomes. Here, in the very interesting study conducted by Frey and colleagues, the authors used measures derived from event-related potentials (ERPs) to assess visuo-spatial maps within the visual cortex in youths with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and controls. Based on the observation that some individuals with ASD tend to not fixate on a target (i.e. they exhibit off-center fixations), Frey and colleagues hypothesized that this fixation pattern would impact the development of the visual cortex. Specifically, they predicted that the participants with ASD would process stimuli presented in the periphery differently relative to the control group. Consistent with this prediction, the ASD group compared with the controls exhibited greater ERP amplitudes when stimuli were presented in the periphery. No group differences were detected when stimuli were presented centrally. Moreover, the investigators found that the amplitude in response to the peripheral stimuli correlated with the severity of stereotyped behaviors and restricted interests, which are core features of ASD. These findings are important because they provide preliminary data suggesting that an idiosyncratic behavior could alter brain function and possibly contribute to ASD-related impairments. Going forward, it will be important to precisely characterize the developmental time course of these events. Specifically, longitudinal investigations of young children at risk for ASD and multiple ERP acquisition sessions could identify whether the fixation pattern precedes the altered ERP response. Furthermore, similar work that simultaneously monitors fixation patterns and visual cortex development could make headway on the question of why this pattern emerges in some individuals. One question that these findings raise is what is the functional impact, if any, of these behavioral and cortical anomalies? The present study's finding of an association between ERP amplitude to peripheral presentations and specific impairments in ASD suggests that anomalies in fixation and striate cortex function might contribute to the ASD impairments. Of course, more work is necessary to understand the nature of these relationships. One possibility for probing this further is to conduct a training intervention in an effort to improve fixation patterns and possibly normalize brain function. If these changes correspond to reduced impairments in functioning, not only would it be consistent with the theoretical framework of Frey et al. (2013) but it would contribute to the promise of translational neuroscience.

Perfectionism and negative repetitive thoughts: Examining a multiple mediator model in relation to mindfulness

Perfectionism is known to be associated with various maladaptive outcomes, yet little research has examined mechanisms underlying perfectionism or potential protective factors. This study investigated worry and rumination as mediators between perfectionism and psychological distress in university students (N=213), and related the multiple mediator model to a five-facet conceptualization of mindfulness. Socially prescribed perfectionism was related to higher levels of distress, including negative affect, depression, anxiety, and stress, while self-oriented perfectionism and other-oriented perfectionism appeared unrelated to distress. Mindfulness facets of acting with awareness, non-judging of inner experience, and to a lesser extent non-reactivity to inner experience, were the strongest independent contributors to perfectionism, negative repetitive thoughts, and distress. Worry and rumination mediated the relationship between socially prescribed perfectionism and negative affect; however, the mediating effect of rumination was absent in those high in mindfulness. These findings suggest that a mindfulness disposition may mitigate distress related to socially prescribed perfectionism by removing the mediating effect of ruminative thought. Future research might explore a mindfulness-training program to target negative repetitive thoughts underlying socially prescribed perfectionism.

Predicting Psychological Needs and Well‐Being of Individuals Engaging in Weight Management: The Role of Important Others

Using the self-determination theory (SDT) framework, we examined how significant others might support or thwart psychological needs of people with weight management goals, and in turn might affect their psychological well-being and weight control behaviors. Longitudinal design with three sets of questionnaires administered over a 6-month period. One hundred and fifty-six eligible participants (age = 31.01 ± 13.21 years) were asked to complete questionnaires of SDT-based constructs, weight management behaviors, and psychological well-being. Hypotheses were tested using Bayesian path analysis. Perceived autonomy support from significant others was related to psychological need satisfaction, while controlling behaviors by others were associated with need thwarting. In turn, need satisfaction was associated with some beneficial outcomes such as life satisfaction, and need thwarting was related to some maladaptive outcomes such as higher levels of depressive symptoms and increases in unhealthy diet behaviors. Our findings indicate that the quality of interactions between individuals engaged in weight management and their significant others matters in terms of predicting the psychological needs and well-being of the former.

College Students' Use of Communication Technology with Parents: Comparisons Between Two Cohorts in 2009 and 2011

Although communication technology is beneficial to maintain important close relationships, not all findings suggest that communication technology use between college students and their parents is indicative of positive adjustment or relational qualities. A study in 2009 found that only 24.2% of college students used a social networking site (SNS) to communicate with a parent, yet those students reported more loneliness, anxious attachment, and conflict with their parent (Gentzler et al., 2011 ). Because technology and trends in use change rapidly, we investigated a new cohort of college students 2 years later to determine if rates of using communication technology with parents and their links to student adjustment have changed. Comparisons between 2009 and 2011 samples indicated that in-person contact and telephone use did not vary across cohorts. However, texting and SNS use with parents became more common, and using e-mail with parents declined. Consistent with the 2009 data, students' phone use with parents was related to positive relationship qualities (satisfaction, intimacy, support, instrumental aid). In the new 2011 sample, e-mail was linked to aid. However, the present findings indicate students' SNS use with parents is no longer linked to maladaptive outcomes. The study highlights how quickly the use and implications of communication technology changes, and suggests that communication patterns may reflect broader psychosocial adjustment and parent-child dynamics.

Disrupted Reinforcement Learning and Maladaptive Behavior in Women With a History of Childhood Sexual Abuse

Childhood sexual abuse (CSA) has been associated with psychopathology, particularly major depressive disorder (MDD), and high-risk behaviors. Despite the epidemiological data available, the mechanisms underlying these maladaptive outcomes remain poorly understood. We examined whether a history of CSA, particularly in conjunction with a past episode of MDD, is associated with behavioral and neural dysfunction in reinforcement learning, and whether such dysfunction is linked to maladaptive behavior. Participants completed a clinical evaluation and a probabilistic reinforcement task while 128-channel event-related potentials were recorded. Academic setting; participants recruited from the community. Fifteen women with a history of CSA and remitted MDD (CSA + rMDD), 16 women with remitted MDD with no history of CSA (rMDD), and 18 healthy women (controls). Three or more episodes of coerced sexual contact (mean [SD] duration, 3.00 [2.20] years) between the ages of 7 and 12 years by at least 1 male perpetrator. Participants' preference for choosing the most rewarded stimulus and avoiding the most punished stimulus was evaluated. The feedback-related negativity and error-related negativity-hypothesized to reflect activation in the anterior cingulate cortex-were used as electrophysiological indices of reinforcement learning. No group differences emerged in the acquisition of reinforcement contingencies. In trials requiring participants to rely partially or exclusively on previously rewarded information, the CSA + rMDD group showed (1) lower accuracy (relative to both controls and the rMDD group), (2) blunted electrophysiological differentiation between correct and incorrect responses (relative to controls), and (3) increased activation in the subgenual anterior cingulate cortex (relative to the rMDD group). A history of CSA was not associated with impairments in avoiding the most punished stimulus. Self-harm and suicidal behaviors correlated with poorer performance of previously rewarded, but not previously punished, trials. Irrespective of past MDD episodes, women with a history of CSA showed neural and behavioral deficits in utilizing previous reinforcement to optimize decision making in the absence of feedback (blunted "Go learning"). Although our study provides initial evidence for reward-specific deficits associated with CSA, future research is warranted to determine if disrupted positive reinforcement learning predicts high-risk behavior following CSA.

Disorganized Behavior in Adolescent–Parent Interaction: Relations to Attachment State of Mind, Partner Abuse, and Psychopathology

Disoriented, punitive, and caregiving/role-confused attachment behaviors are associated with psychopathology in childhood, but have not been assessed in adolescence. A total of 120 low-income late adolescents (aged 18-23 years) and parents were assessed in a conflict-resolution paradigm. Their interactions were coded with the Goal-Corrected Partnership in Adolescence Coding Scales. Confirmatory factor analysis demonstrated that the three disorganized constructs (punitive, caregiving, and disoriented interaction) were best represented as distinct factors and were separable from a fourth factor for collaboration. The four factors were then assessed in relation to measures of attachment disorganization, partner abuse, and psychopathology. Results indicate that forms of disorganized behavior first described in early childhood can also be reliably assessed in adolescence and are associated with maladaptive outcomes across multiple domains.

General Strain Theory, Gender, and the Conditioning Influence of Negative Internalizing Emotions on Youth Risk Behaviors

Girls’ maladaptive responses to strain may be more likely to manifest in self-directed deviance than externally directed deviance, partly due to the role of depression/anxiety in girls’ lives. These assertions are tested using the Project on Human Development in Chicago Neighborhoods. Gendered maladaptive outcomes—aggressive delinquency, running away, substance use, and suicidal behavior—are regressed on negative emotions and serious strain. The moderating effects of depression/anxiety are also tested. Depression/anxiety is associated with less aggressive delinquency for girls and amplifies the effects of strain and anger on nonaggressive maladaptive outcomes. The results help explain how gender influences relationships among strain, externalizing and internalizing negative emotions, and risk behaviors.

Disgust and Behavioral Avoidance in Colorectal Cancer Screening and Treatment

The emotion of disgust appears to promote psychological and behavioral avoidance, a dynamic that has significant implications in physical and psychological outcomes in colorectal cancer (CRC). Patients, caregivers, and health professionals alike are all potentially susceptible to responding with disgust and the associated avoidance. This article aimed to review the early-stage literature related to disgust and CRC, consider the clinical implications, and suggest an appropriate research agenda. Given limited research in this area, a systematic review of the literature was broadened to include disgust and all cancers. MEDLINE, Web of Science, SCOPUS, and ProQuest Dissertations and Theses databases were searched, with additional works sourced by reviewing citation lists and/or by contacting the lead authors. Nine studies were identified relating to disgust and cancer screening, and 6 related to disgust and cancer treatment. Two broad findings emerged: (1) disgust appears to be promoting aversion to (and avoidance of) CRC screening, and (2) several known elicitors of disgust are widely apparent in CRC contexts. Disgust likely represents a key emotional substrate for avoidance among CRC patients, caregivers, and health professionals. Further research is required to identify disgust's elicitors and effects in CRC contexts, informing interventions that target early identification of persons at risk of maladaptive outcomes. Exposure therapies and mindfulness training may be well suited to treating disgust-generated avoidance. Disgust has significant implications in CRC contexts. Oncology nurses are uniquely positioned to guide clinical interventions and ultimately improve outcomes in this area.

Regulation of positive and negative emotion: effects of sociocultural context

Previous research has demonstrated that the use of emotion regulation strategies can vary by sociocultural context. In a previous study, we reported changes in the use of two different emotion regulation strategies at an annual alternative cultural event, Burning Man (McRae et al., 2011). In this sociocultural context, as compared to typically at home, participants reported less use of expressive suppression (a strategy generally associated with maladaptive outcomes), and greater use of cognitive reappraisal (a strategy generally associated with adaptive outcomes). What remained unclear was whether these changes in self-reported emotion regulation strategy use were characterized by changes in the regulation of positive emotion, negative emotion, or both. We addressed this issue in the current study by asking Burning Man participants separate questions about positive and negative emotion. Using multiple datasets, we replicated our previous findings, and found that the decreased use of suppression is primarily driven by reports of decreased suppression of positive emotion at Burning Man. By contrast, the increased use of reappraisal is not characterized by differential reappraisal of positive and negative emotion at Burning Man. Moreover, we observed novel individual differences in the magnitude of these effects. The contextual changes in self-reported suppression that we observe are strongest for men and younger participants. For those who had previously attended Burning Man, we observed lower levels of self-reported suppression in both sociocultural contexts: Burning Man and typically at home. These findings have implications for understanding the ways in which certain sociocultural contexts may decrease suppression, and possibly minimize its associated maladaptive effects.

Use of a Social–Ecological Framework to Understand How and Under What Conditions Family Violence Exposure Affects Children’s Adjustment

The proportion of children experiencing violence in the home is disturbingly high, with many also being victims of violence outside the home. Therefore, smaller, innovative or preliminary studies were invited in order to better understand how exposure to violence across different ecologies independently or interactively influences the risk for maladaptive outcomes. This special issue is predicated on the notion that risk for maladaptive outcomes is contextualized by one’s individual traits (e.g., self-regulatory capacities), characteristics of the abuse (e.g., duration), exposure to multiple forms of violence (both within and outside the home), as well as parenting and familial resources (e.g., parents’ mental health and abuse history, familial social support). Two of the articles focus on dual victimization in the home, two address factors that modify the relation between child sexual abuse and adjustment, and the last two articles focus on mediators of the relationship between abuse or exposure to IPV and adjustment. Taken together, these articles reflect efforts at elucidating modifiable targets for prevention and intervention purposes, as well as qualities of the individual, family, or the abuse that may aid in tailoring interventions to be maximally effective.

Does mode of processing during a positive experience have consequences for affect?

Background and objectivesRumination about negative material (e.g., depression symptoms, current problems) contributes to the course and maintenance of depression. More recently, studies have shown that it is not rumination per se, but rather the mode of processing (i.e., abstract/analytical versus concrete/experiential) adopted during rumination that is critical in determining whether rumination has adaptive or maladaptive outcomes. To date, only one study has examined the affective impact of adopting a particular processing mode with positive material; specifically, when recalling a happy memory. The current study extends this line of investigation by examining whether adopting an abstract or concrete processing mode during a positive experience (i.e., a success task) has consequences for subsequent affect. MethodsHigh and low dysphoric participants (N = 136) were randomly allocated to abstract, concrete or no training conditions prior to a success experience. Affect was measured before and after success. ResultsWe found that neither processing mode condition nor dysphoria status had consequences for the affective impact of success. LimitationsOur findings are based on an analogue sample. Further research is required to enable generalisation to depression. ConclusionsThis study provides some initial indication in a non-clinical sample that processing mode does not have the same differential affective impact when combined with a positive experience (e.g., success) as when combined with a negative experience (e.g., failure).

The Effects of Intimate Partner Violence on Women and Child Survivors: An Attachment Perspective

Approximately 25% of women in the United States report having experienced intimate partner violence (IPV) in an adult relationship with a male partner. For affected women, IPV has been shown to increase the risk of psychopathology such as depression, anxiety, and symptoms of posttraumatic stress. Further, studies suggest that the risk of IPV (victimization or perpetration) may be carried intergenerationally, and children exposed to IPV are at a greater risk of both attachment insecurity and internalizing/externalizing problems. The authors employ an attachment perspective to describe how insecure/non-balanced working models of the relational self and others may be evoked by, elicit, or exacerbate maladaptive outcomes following experiences of IPV for mothers and their children. This article draws on both rich theory and empirical evidence in a discussion of attachment patterns in violent relationships, psychopathological outcomes for exposed women, disruptions in the caregiving relationship that may confer risk to children of exposed mothers, and the biological, social, and attachment risk factors for children exposed to IPV. A clinical case example is presented and discussed in the context of attachment theory.

The neural signatures of distinct psychopathic traits

Recent studies suggest that psychopathy may be associated with dysfunction in the neural circuitry supporting both threat- and reward-related processes. However, these studies have involved small samples and often focused on extreme groups. Thus, it is unclear to what extent current findings may generalize to psychopathic traits in the general population. Furthermore, no studies have systematically and simultaneously assessed associations between distinct psychopathy facets and both threat- and reward-related brain function in the same sample of participants. Here, we examined the relationship between threat-related amygdala reactivity and reward-related ventral striatum (VS) reactivity and variation in four facets of self-reported psychopathy in a sample of 200 young adults. Path models indicated that amygdala reactivity to fearful facial expressions is negatively associated with the interpersonal facet of psychopathy, whereas amygdala reactivity to angry facial expressions is positively associated with the lifestyle facet. Furthermore, these models revealed that differential VS reactivity to positive versus negative feedback is negatively associated with the lifestyle facet. There was suggestive evidence for gender-specific patterns of association between brain function and psychopathy facets. Our findings are the first to document differential associations between both threat- and reward-related neural processes and distinct facets of psychopathy and thus provide a more comprehensive picture of the pattern of neural vulnerabilities that may predispose to maladaptive outcomes associated with psychopathy.

Stressful early life experiences and immune dysregulation across the lifespan

There is considerable evidence that stressful early life events influence a variety of physical health problems later in life. Childhood adversity has been linked to elevated rates of morbidity and mortality from a number of chronic diseases. Immune dysregulation may be one potential pathway that explains this link. In this mini-review, we summarize human studies demonstrating that severe early life stressors have lasting immune consequences. We propose a model outlining potential biobehavioral pathways that explain how early life stressors leave people vulnerable to these maladaptive outcomes. Finally, we suggest ideas for future work to test different aspects of this model.

How you think about your intelligence influences how adjusted you are: Implicit theories and adjustment outcomes

Individuals hold different views towards their IQ, with some people seeing it as relatively fixed and others seeing it as malleable. Individual differences in these beliefs (implicit theories of intelligence) have been shown to influence a wide range of achievement-related outcomes in school. However, the impact of these implicit theories of intelligence on a broader range of adjustment outcomes beyond the school domain has been relatively unexplored. Therefore, the aim of this study is to examine how implicit theories of intelligence are related to a wider range of adjustment and well-being outcomes. Results of the study indicated that viewing intelligence as fixed (entity theory) is associated with more maladaptive outcomes. Viewing intelligence as malleable (incremental theory) has been found to be more optimal. Implications and directions for future research are discussed.

Processing mode during repetitive thinking in socially anxious individuals: Evidence for a maladaptive experiential mode

Background and objectivesEvidence from the depression literature suggests that an analytical processing mode adopted during repetitive thinking leads to maladaptive outcomes relative to an experiential processing mode. To date, in socially anxious individuals, the impact of processing mode during repetitive thinking related to an actual social-evaluative situation has not been investigated. We thus tested whether an analytical processing mode would be maladaptive relative to an experiential processing mode during anticipatory processing and post-event rumination. MethodsHigh and low socially anxious participants were induced to engage in either an analytical or experiential processing mode during: (a) anticipatory processing before performing a speech (Experiment 1; N = 94), or (b) post-event rumination after performing a speech (Experiment 2; N = 74). Mood, cognition, and behavioural measures were employed to examine the effects of processing mode. ResultsFor high socially anxious participants, the modes had a similar effect on self-reported anxiety during both anticipatory processing and post-event rumination. Unexpectedly, relative to the analytical mode, the experiential mode led to stronger high standard and conditional beliefs during anticipatory processing, and stronger unconditional beliefs during post-event rumination. LimitationsThese experiments are the first to investigate processing mode during anticipatory processing and post-event rumination. Hence, these results are novel and will need to be replicated. ConclusionsThese findings suggest that an experiential processing mode is maladaptive relative to an analytical processing mode during repetitive thinking characteristic of socially anxious individuals.

A person-centered investigation of academic motivation and its correlates in high school

This study used a person-centered approach to identify naturally occurring combinations of intrinsic motivation and controlled forms of extrinsic motivation (i.e., introjected and external regulation) and their correlates in an academic context. 1061 high school students completed measures of academic motivation, performance, and school-related correlates. Cluster analysis revealed four motivational profiles characterized by comparably high levels of all types of motivation (high quantity), high intrinsic motivation relative to introjected and external regulation (good quality), low intrinsic motivation and introjected regulation relative to external regulation (poor quality), and very low intrinsic motivation and introjected regulation relative to external regulation (low quantity with poor quality). Students in the high quantity and good quality profiles reported the strongest academic performance and greatest overall extracurricular participation, with students in different motivational profiles likely to participate in different types of activities. Students in the high quantity profile, moreover, perceived the most teacher support and school relatedness. These findings suggest that controlled forms of extrinsic motivation may not be associated with maladaptive outcomes at the high school level when coupled with high levels of intrinsic motivation.

When do adaptive developmental mechanisms yield maladaptive outcomes?

This article discusses 3 ways in which adaptive developmental mechanisms may produce maladaptive outcomes. First, natural selection may favor risky strategies that enhance fitness on average but which have detrimental consequences for a subset of individuals. Second, mismatch may result when organisms experience environmental change during ontogeny, for instance, because they move from one environment to another. Third, organisms may learn about their environment in order to develop an appropriate phenotype; when cues indicate the environmental state probabilistically, as opposed to deterministically, sampling processes may produce mismatch. For each source of maladaptation, we present a selection of the relevant empirical research and illustrate how models from evolutionary biology can be used to make predictions about maladaptation. We also discuss what data can be collected to test these models in humans. Our goal is to show that evolutionary approaches not only yield insights into adaptive outcomes but can also illuminate the conditions leading to maladaptation. This perspective provides additional nuance to the dialectic between the developmental psychopathology model and evolutionary developmental psychology.

Prefrontal/accumbal catecholamine system processes high motivational salience

Motivational salience regulates the strength of goal seeking, the amount of risk taken, and the energy invested from mild to extreme. Highly motivational experiences promote highly persistent memories. Although this phenomenon is adaptive in normal conditions, experiences with extremely high levels of motivational salience can promote development of memories that can be re-experienced intrusively for long time resulting in maladaptive outcomes. Neural mechanisms mediating motivational salience attribution are, therefore, very important for individual and species survival and for well-being. However, these neural mechanisms could be implicated in attribution of abnormal motivational salience to different stimuli leading to maladaptive compulsive seeking or avoidance. We have offered the first evidence that prefrontal cortical norepinephrine (NE) transmission is a necessary condition for motivational salience attribution to highly salient stimuli, through modulation of dopamine (DA) in the nucleus accumbens (NAc), a brain area involved in all motivated behaviors. Moreover, we have shown that prefrontal-accumbal catecholamine (CA) system determines approach or avoidance responses to both reward- and aversion-related stimuli only when the salience of the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is high enough to induce sustained CA activation, thus affirming that this system processes motivational salience attribution selectively to highly salient events.