Majority Of Smallholder Farmers Research Articles

Conservation agriculture assists smallholder farmers and their agroecosystem in the Democratic Republic of the Congo

Conservation agriculture, a sustainable farming practice combining no or minimum soil disturbance, crop diversification, and soil cover, can benefit humans and the biophysical environment. However, less than half of Sub-Saharan African countries implement conservation agriculture, and the majority of smallholder farmers are using unsustainable practices. Research and field trials on conservation agriculture adaptation to soil and agroecological conditions are vital for increasing adoption of conservation agriculture in Sub-Saharan Africa. The objectives of this study were to (i) evaluate the change in soil chemical properties and soil biology from implementation of conservation agriculture, (ii) assess cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp.) yield and variability under conservation agriculture compared to the conventional farming practice, and (iii) evaluate differences in soil chemical properties, soil biology, and crop yields under conservation agriculture in savannah and forest ecosystems compared to conventional agriculture in smallholder farming in the province of Maniema in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Soils under conservation agriculture had 6.5 times more (p < 0.001) earthworms, 23% and 10% greater (p < 0.05) concentrations of soil phosphorus and potassium, respectively, and 100% greater (p < 0.001) cowpea yield than soils under conventional agriculture. Measured across all sites, conservation agriculture and conventional cowpea yields had coefficients of variation of 25% and 16%, respectively. This study showed for the first time that conservation agriculture implementation contributes to soil health and food security associated with smallholder farming in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.

Smallholder Farmers’ Coping Strategies to Perceived Climate Change and Variability in Isingiro District, South Western Uganda

Climate change and variability pose a major challenge facing the agricultural sector around the world and trends are feared to intensify by 2050. This is likely to complicate agricultural decisions affecting local communities who depend on the sector for their livelihood. Seasonal changes in weather patterns are projected to reduce food production due to the reduction in average yields of common food crops. With the majority of smallholder farmers in Uganda depending on agriculture for survival, building their adaptive capacity to climate change is vital to ensure household food and income security. This study aimed at establishing the smallholder farmers’ perceptions of climate change and their initiatives to cope with and manage the associated risks. A sample of 126 farming households were randomly selected from three Sub counties in Isingiro District and studied using field observations and questionnaires. Key informant interviews were also conducted with three extension workers. The collected data was analysed using Stata 14 and Excel. The findings revealed that there was increasing awareness of the climate change and variability challenge among smallholder farmers with the increasing need to take on adaptation strategies. The results showed that the major perceived changes were, increased intensity and frequency of droughts (98%), increase in daytime temperatures (92.7%), decrease in rainfall intensity (92.1%) and changes in rainfall distribution patterns (90%). It also showed that different initiatives had been taken by farmers to cope with the changes like changing planting dates (92.1%), growing crop variety mixtures (73.8%) and practising soil and water conservation (62.7%). Based on the findings of this study, smallholder farmers greatly perceived climate change and variability with negative impacts imposed on their farming operations. Although farmers have tried to adapt, there is still a need to support their coping strategies through appropriate policies. This will facilitate increased adoption of adaptation measures, thereby reducing the negative consequences of climate change in future

Determinants of small farmers access to agricultural markets in South Africa

Abstract. Restricted access to markets and complex rules remain a global barrier to growing small enterprises. A randomized sample of 200 farmers were carefully selected for the study. The study assessed farmers methods of linking to markets in Mbombela South Africa and analyse the determinants of engaging in specific types of markets. Structured and semi-structured questionnaires divided into sections were applied. The descriptive statistics and logistic regression methods were used for data analysis. The results showed that majority of smallholder farmers used informal markets and linkage to market information is through cell phone. Some of the major challenges farmers faced when accessing markets were transportation and inadequate market information. The empirical results of the study showed that the variables that positively influenced the choice of specific types of markets by farmers were gender (P&lt;0.030), age (P&lt;0.007), distance to markets (P&lt;0.057), easiness of accessing markets (P&lt;0.007), challenges with accessing markets (P&lt;0.042) and access to extension services (P&lt;0.003). The study concluded that the smallholder farmers in the Mbombela Local Municipality have difficulties in accessing formal markets and rely on informal markets to sell their farm products. The study recommended that farmers should be trained on the use of social media channels in accessing agricultural markets. Government should support to improve infrastructures like roads to assist farmers in accessing market. The study concluded that transport costs should be managed through shared and collective transportation arrangement with other farmers to convey farm produce to the markets for sale.

Climate change mitigation potential of agroforestry farms in West African Savanna

Agroforestry is a land management strategy which interfaces between agriculture and forestry. It is a reliable means to combating climate change in different parts of the world. Although majority of smallholder farmers in Ghana are aware of the benefits associated with agroforestry practice, degradation of trees on farmlands remains a major concern. This study investigates the potential of agroforestry as a climate change mitigation strategy in the Nandom Municipal. Eight (8) agroforestry farms were selected for assessment using the non-destructive method. In each farm, the trees were identified by both scientific and local names. The diameter at breast height and height of the trees were measured. The biomass was estimated using the allometric model developed by Aabeyir et al. (2020). The carbon was estimated from the biomass using a factor of 0.47. The results indicate that carbon sequestration is high among trees species like Lannea velutina, Parkia biglobosa and Vitellaria paradoxa which often have large DBH. The study therefore recommends for nursery and integration of such tree species with smallholder crops for purposes of agroforestry.

YIELD AND YIELD RELATED PERFORMANCE OF COWPEA (Vignia unguiculata L.) VARIETIES TESTED AT DIFFERENT FERTILIZER USE UNDER IRRIGATION, CENTRAL GONDAR ZONE, ETHIOPIA

Inadequate quantity and quality feeds is the major constraints to livestock production in majority of smallholder farmers in Ethiopia. This necessitates the need to follow economically viable forage production. A study was conducted to evaluate the yield and yield related performance of cowpea (Vignia unguiculata L.) varieties under irrigation in 2017 and 2018 years. The experiment was laid down in a split plot design with randomized complete block design (RCBD) arrangement in four replications. There were two main plots of which one was planted with fertilizer and the other one without fertilizer for comparison and the sub plot treatments were eight varieties of Cowpea (Vignia unguiculata) (ILRI 9333, ILRI 9334, ILRI 11114, ILRI 12688, ILRI 12713, Kenkety, Black eye bean and IT92KD258-9). The data collected consisted of plant height (cm), number of branches per plant, forage biomass yield (t ha&lt;sup&lt;-1&lt;/sup&lt;), dry matter yield (t ha&lt;sup&lt;-1&lt;/sup&lt;), leaf to stem ratio, number of pods per plant, number of seeds per pod, grain yield (kg ha&lt;sup&lt;-1&lt;/sup&lt;), thousand seed weight (g) and haulm yield (t ha&lt;sup&lt;-1&lt;/sup&lt;). All data were subjected to analysis of variance procedures, with significance test at p&lt;0.05. The results revealed that highest dry biomass yield (t ha&lt;sup&lt;-1&lt;/sup&lt;) was recorded when Cowpea varieties ILRI 9334, ILRI 11114, ILRI 12688 and IT92KD258-9 planted with fertilizer. The highest haulm yield was obtained from Cowpea varieties ILRI 9334, ILRI 11114 and ILRI 12713 when planted with fertilizer and when ILRI 9334, ILRI 12688, ILRI 12713 and IT92KD258-9 Cowpea varities planted with out fertilizer. Cowpea varieties Kenkety and IT92KD258-9 produced higher grain yield compared to other varieties. Cowpea varieties ILRI 9333, ILRI 11114, ILRI 12688, ILRI 12713 and IT92KD258-9 when planted with and with out fertilizer; when variety ILRI- 9334 and Kenkety planted only with fertilizer and also variety Black eye bean when planted with out fertilizer was found economically profitable. Therefore, based on the study results, planting Cowpea varieties ILRI 9334, ILRI 11114, ILRI 12688 and IT92KD258-9 with 100 kg ha&lt;sup&lt;-1&lt;/sup&lt; NPS fertilizer appears to be more preferable regarding biomass yield and were found potentially profitable.

Determinants of utilization of agricultural technologies among smallholder dairy farmers in Kenya

Utilization of agricultural technologies plays a crucial role in enhancing the productivity and income of smallholder dairy farmers. However, the uptake of these technologies is low among majority of smallholder farmers especially in developing countries. Using survey data from 682 households in Murang'a County in Kenya, this study examines determinants and intensity of use of artificial insemination, deworming, vaccination, curative treatment, improved feeds (hay, silage) and pregnancy diagnosis. We applied a multivariate probit model for the simultaneous multiple utilization decisions, and ordered probit models for assessing the intensity of utilization. The study results revealed that education level of household head, number of cows owned, livestock type, milk yield, land size, access to contract, price of milk, access to credit, access to business plan training, membership to dairy cooperatives, type of service providers, receiving of remittance, distance to veterinary and output market were the major factors that affect the likelihood of utilizing dairy agricultural technologies among smallholder farmers in Kenya. The intensity of utilizing dairy technologies was influenced by number of cows in the household, livestock type, land size, access to contract, access to credit, membership to dairy cooperatives and type of service providers. In conclusion, utilization of agricultural technologies is influenced by different household, farm, market and transaction cost characteristics, which could hinder or facilitate the uptake of these technologies. The findings will equip agricultural policy makers and agribusiness service providers in addressing the major barriers facing smallholder dairy farmers in making informed utilization decisions of dairy technologies. • Artificial insemination and deworming services were the most utilized dairy technologies. • Majority of smallholder farmers were using more than three dairy technologies. • Increased linkage between smallholder famers with private service providers could accelerate uptake of dairy technologies.

The forgotten agriculture-nutrition link: farm technologies and human energy requirements

In the quest to reduce global under- and malnutrition, which are particularly high among smallholder farmers, agriculture-nutrition linkages are receiving increasing attention. Researchers have analyzed the link between the quantity and diversity of food that farmers produce and nutritional outcomes but paid limited attention to a third agriculture-nutrition link: the link between how food is produced and nutritional outcomes. This neglect persists despite the majority of smallholder farmers relying on hand tools for farming, which implies heavy physical work and, thus, high energy requirements. To address this research gap, this study compares the energy requirements of farm households in rural Zambia that are characterized by three different levels of mechanization: hand tools, animal drought power, and tractors. 1638 days of detailed time-use and nutrition data were collected from 186 male and female adults and boys and girls during different seasons (land preparation, weeding, and harvesting/processing) using an innovative picture-based smartphone app called “Timetracker”. This data served to calculate different proxies for physical activity and energy requirements using “Ainsworth’s Compendium of Physical Activities”. The results suggest that detailed time-use data offers great potentials to study physical activity and energy requirements. The findings show strong linkages between farm technologies, physical activity levels, and energy requirements, suggesting that this agriculture-nutrition link deserves more scientific and political attention to reduce under- and malnutrition among smallholder farmers.

Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change among Smallholder Farmers in Moshi Rural District, Tanzania

Climate change is real and presents a threat to human beings particularly the smallholder farmers who rely on rainfed agriculture for their livelihoods. Climate change aff ects smallholder farmers diff erently, and hence acts diff erently to address their impacts. Th us in order to address the adverse impacts of climate change, adaptation to climate change impacts is important. Th is study was undertaken to examine smallholder farmer’s adaptation strategies in Moshi Rural district, Tanzania. Primary data were obtained from 359 household heads and 35 key informants. Data collection methods for this study were face-to-face administered questionnaires, in-depth interviews, focus group discussions, and observation. Questionnaires were administered to 359 household heads while in-depth interviews were administered to key informants. Analysis involved descriptive statistics for quantitative data and content analysis for qualitative data. Findings from this study revealed that majority of smallholder farmers have undertaken diff erent adaptation strategies to address climate change impacts. Th ese strategies were both at household level and at the farm-level. Household level adaptation strategies include livelihood diversifi cation, changing eating habits and dependency on remittances, while farm level adaptation strategies were crop diversifi cation, irrigation and intercropping.

Impacts of Climate Change on Food Security and Adaptation Options for Smallholder Farmers in Malawi

This article is based on the study that assessed the impact of climate change on food security and adaptation strategies among smallholder farmers in Salima district, Malawi. The research design deployed literature review and case study survey. A mixed approach of both qualitative and quantitative research methods was used for data collection and analysis. Findings revealed a felt slight increase in temperature. Rainfall seasonality changes (inter annual and intra variation) are suspected to lead to more frequent and intensified droughts and floods that affect four pillars of food security i.e., food availability, access, utilization and stability. Perceived climate change risks are based on smallholder farmers’ experience and knowledge of their local farming. Majority of smallholder farmers in the study areas depend on subsistence farming that is rainfed and vulnerable to seasonality changes. Farmers are taking adaptation measures to ensure food security that includes indigenous knowledge based on past experiences and adoption of climate smart modern technologies. Adaptation limiting factors include limited livelihoods-based capitals, knowledge and skills of climate smart agriculture. There is need for reforming agriculture extension services provided by government through formal integration of climate smart agriculture in policy linkages to smallholder farmers.

Impacts of Climate Change on Food Security and Adaptation Options for Smallholder Farmers in Malawi

This article is based on the study that assessed the impact of climate change on food security and adaptation strategies among smallholder farmers in Salima district, Malawi. The research design deployed literature review and case study survey. A mixed approach of both qualitative and quantitative research methods was used for data collection and analysis. Findings revealed a felt slight increase in temperature. Rainfall seasonality changes (inter annual and intra variation) are suspected to lead to more frequent and intensified droughts and floods that affect four pillars of food security i.e., food availability, access, utilization and stability. Perceived climate change risks are based on smallholder farmers’ experience and knowledge of their local farming. Majority of smallholder farmers in the study areas depend on subsistence farming that is rainfed and vulnerable to seasonality changes. Farmers are taking adaptation measures to ensure food security that includes indigenous knowledge based on past experiences and adoption of climate smart modern technologies. Adaptation limiting factors include limited livelihoods-based capitals, knowledge and skills of climate smart agriculture. There is need for reforming agriculture extension services provided by government through formal integration of climate smart agriculture in policy linkages to smallholder farmers.

Climate variability and adaptation among small holder banana farmers in mountain regions of Kenya

Banana production is the mainstay industry for majority of small holder farmers living in the mountain regions of Kenya. These regions are affected by climate-related impacts at all levels of the value chain. This paper therefore discusses climate trends, related impacts, and adaptations in banana value chain in Mt. Kenya region for the period between 1980 and 2017. The study locations were purposively selected from Mt. Kenya region to include both Imenti South and Mukurweini sub-counties. A sample of 381 respondents was selected using simple random sampling. Triangulation research design was used to guide the study by integrating both qualitative and quantitative methods in data collection and analysis. Historical document analysis was used to examine climatic data (temperature and rainfall) from the Kenya Meteorological Department, Nairobi. Results showed that rainfall and temperature have changed during the study period. Temperature trends in Mukurweini showed R2 = 0.3314 while in Imenti South R2 =0.3441 with an overall annual increase in temperature in Mukurweini by 0.02°C while in Imenti South we registered an increase by 0.016°C for the study period. Mukurweini sub-county rainfall trend line had R2 =-0.1064 while Imenti South sub-county had R2 =-0.1014. Adverse effects of climate variability on banana value chain included low yields in both Mukurweini (79.2%) and Imenti South (60.2%) sub-counties. Farmers in the study area preferred irrigation (57.2%) followed by crop diversification (13.9%) as adaptive strategies to climate variability.

Is investment in Climate-Smart-agricultural practices the option for the future? Cost and benefit analysis evidence from Ghana

A majority of smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) countries depend to a large extent on agriculture for food security and income. Efforts aimed at improving farm-related profitability are therefore important to improving livelihoods among smallholder farmers. In Ghana, for example, smallholder farmers that depend on agriculture face serious risks especially those related to climate change and variability and soil degradation. Notwithstanding these dangers, evidence of the published literature on how best to tackle these challenges is limited. Over the recent decades, however, there has been advancement by programs channelling resources into Climate-Smart Agricultural (CSA) practices to improving smallholder livelihoods and food security. The interest in advancing investment in CSA practices is a key pathway that has the potential to significantly reduce the negative effect of climate change and variability risks on smallholder farmers livelihoods. Investing in CSA practices is also a key pathway to improving farm yield per unit area. Consequently, smallholder farmers are adopting and implementing CSA practices. Despite that, a gap still exists on the profitability of undertaking such an investment, as this is key in determining the sustainability of CSA practices. On this basis, the present study undertook a detailed cost-benefit analysis (CBA) of seven CSA practices identified with smallholder farmers in the coastal savannah agro-ecological zone of Ghana. A total of 48 smallholder farmers that had adopted these practices were studied. Three CBA indicators namely the net present value (NPV), internal rate of return (IRR) and payback period (PP) were assessed for each of the seven CSA practices. The results showed that out of the seven CSA practices examined, six of them were profitably suitable for adoption and scaling up from the perspective of smallholder farmers as well as the public perspective. The finding from this study, therefore, fill the current information gap in the literature on the costs and benefits of adopting CSA practices on household livelihoods in Ghana. Such a finding is critical to the promotion and scaling up the adoption of CSA practices by smallholder farmers and serve as a basis of formulating appropriate guidelines and policies for supporting CSA practices.

A Spatially Explicit Approach for Targeting Resource-Poor Smallholders to Improve Their Participation in Agribusiness: A Case of Nyando and Vihiga County in Western Kenya

The majority of smallholder farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa face myriad challenges to participating in agribusiness markets. However, how the spatially explicit factors interact to influence household decision choices at the local level is not well understood. This paper’s objective is to identify, map, and analyze spatial dependency and heterogeneity in factors that impede poor smallholders from participating in agribusiness markets. Using the researcher-administered survey questionnaires, we collected geo-referenced data from 392 households in Western Kenya. We used three spatial geostatistics methods in Geographic Information System to analyze data—Global Moran’s I, Cluster and Outliers Analysis, and geographically weighted regression. Results show that factors impeding smallholder farmers exhibited local spatial autocorrelation that was linked to the local context. We identified distinct local spatial clusters (hot spots and cold spots clusters) that were spatially and statistically significant. Results affirm that spatially explicit factors play a crucial role in influencing the farming decisions of smallholder households. The paper has demonstrated that geospatial analysis using geographically disaggregated data and methods could help in the identification of resource-poor households and neighborhoods. To improve poor smallholders’ participation in agribusiness, we recommend policymakers to design spatially targeted interventions that are embedded in the local context and informed by locally expressed needs.

Predictors of access to and willingness to pay for climate information services in north-eastern Ghana: A gendered perspective

Access to useful climate information is critical for adaptation needs of African smallholder farmers, yet empirical studies documenting the socioeconomic, environmental and household predictors of access to and willingness to pay for climate information services from a gendered perspective have been limited to date. This paper addresses this research need by identifying the predictors of access to and willingness to pay for climate information by smallholder farmers in north-eastern Ghana, a “vulnerability hotspot” where slight changes in rainfall often result in considerable yield losses. The study uses data collected from 193 household surveys in 2 communities across 2 districts in the Upper East region of Ghana. The logit regression was performed based on a disaggregated procedure. Our findings suggest that the majority of smallholder farmers were not willing to pay for the cost of receiving climate information. Results show that only 50% (n = 121) of the male farmers compared with just 31% (n = 72) of female farmers were willing to pay for climate information. The results from the marginal analysis suggest that access to climate information is influenced by both household and environmental factors. The marginal effects logistic regression shows statistically significant differences in the predictors of access and willingness to pay for climate information based on gender. Findings highlight that the provision of climate information should be designed and tailored to meet the needs of smallholder farmers with different socioeconomic backgrounds to enable farmers manage climate risks and build adaptive capacity. The Ghana Meteorological Agency needs to be supported through capacity building on communication to provide targeted climate information for farmers in this climate “vulnerability hotspot”.

Determinants of Wheat Commercialization among Smallholder Farmers in Debre Elias Woreda, Ethiopia

Even though wheat commercialization has got great emphasis, smallholder farmers face challenges to participate in the wheat market. As a result, understanding the intensity of smallholder farmers’ wheat commercialization and factors affecting wheat commercialization has vital importance to tackle the problem. Consequently, this study was undertaken in northwestern Ethiopia to measure smallholder farmers’ wheat commercialization and analyze factors that hamper wheat commercialization in the study area. For this purpose, a systematic sampling technique has been employed to select a total of 154 smallholder wheat producer household heads. A semistructured questionnaire has been used as a principal primary data collection method. Similarly, the output commercialization index and the beta regression model have been employed for data analysis. The result of the study showed that 23.4%, 51.9%, and 24.7% of smallholder farmers were subsistence, semicommercialized, and commercialized, respectively. The result indicated that the majority of smallholder farmers are semicommercial wheat producers. Moreover, the beta regression result indicated that educational status, number of oxen, land size allocated to wheat production, farming experience in wheat production, extension service, and market distance are major factors for smallholder farmer’s wheat commercialization. Therefore, an attempt to increase smallholder farmers’ wheat commercialization should give special priority for significant explanatory variables.

Smallholder farmers’ adaptation strategies for the management of fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda) in rural Ghana

This study examined smallholder farmers' adaptation strategies in managing fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda) in rural Ghana. Using mixed methods, 378 smallholder farmers were randomly selected and surveyed, while 41 key informants were interviewed. The majority of smallholder farmers (83.1%) had experienced fall armyworm invasion with widespread and rapid invasion particularly in maize, which often led to a considerable reduction in crop yields. Pesticides (88%) and washing detergent solution (44%) applications were the common pest management practices. Male farmers were more positive in applying pesticides than female farmers. Integrated pest management practices and education among farmer should be improved.

The 5As: assessing access to animal-drawn conservation agriculture planting equipment by smallholder farmers

Conservation agriculture is a global response to rampant land degradation, soil nutrient mining, declining crop yields and climate change and variability in southern Africa. In Zimbabwe, digging of planting basins is the main archetype of conservation agriculture practiced by a majority of smallholder farmers. Yet, a majority of smallholder farmers have complained about the labour demand of this typology of conservation agriculture, particularly at planting. Access to animal-drawn CA planting machinery may reduce the labour burden of the technology. However, there is paucity of the literature addressing the non-socio-demographic determinants of access to animal-drawn CA planting equipment in Zimbabwe. Therefore, the objective of this study was to evaluate access to animal-drawn CA planting equipment by smallholder farmers in Chivi, Murehwa and Mutoko districts located in different agro-ecological zones of Zimbabwe using the 5As framework of access: acceptability, accessibility, affordability, awareness and availability. Data were collected through a household questionnaire, which was triangulated with focus group discussions, key informant interviews and personal observations. The significant non-socio-economic access to animal-drawn CA planting machinery factors was: acceptability, accessibility, affordability and availability (mean scores of 1.32, 1.44, 1.90 and 1.36, respectively). We recommend the provision of monetary incentives to farmers practicing conservation agriculture. Such incentives have to be based on amount of carbon sequestered and should solely be used for the purchase of conservation agriculture equipment.

Opportunities and challenges for seasonal climate forecasts to more effectively assist smallholder farming decisions

The ability of smallholder farmers to utilise seasonal climate forecast (SCF) information in farm planning to reflect anticipated climate is a precursor to improved farm management. However, the integration of SCF by smallholder farmers into farm planning has been poor, partly because of the lack of forecast skill, lack of communication and inability to see the relevance of the SCFs for specific farming decisions. The relevance of seasonal climate forecasting in farming decisions can be enhanced through improved understanding of SCF from the smallholder farmers’ perspective. Studies that have been done of how smallholder farmers understand SCF and how the available SCFs influence smallholder farmers’ decisions are limited. Therefore, the objective of this paper was to review how smallholder farmers make decisions on farming practices based on SCFs and the challenges and opportunities thereof. The review shows that the majority of smallholder farmers in Africa make use of either scientific or indigenous knowledge climate forecasts and, in some cases, a combination of both. There are mixed results in the area of evaluating benefits of SCFs in decision-making and farm production. In some cases, the outcomes are positive, whereas in others they are difficult to quantify. Thus, the integration of SCFs into smallholder farmers’ decision-making is still a challenge. We recommend that significant work must be done to improve climate forecasts in terms of format, and spatial and temporal context in order for them to be more useful in influencing decision-making by smallholder farmers.&#x0D; Significance:&#x0D; &#x0D; At the farm level, making the right decisions at the right time is rendered even more difficult in light of the increasing frequency of extreme weather patterns.&#x0D; The threat of climate change makes accurate seasonal climate forecasting essential for African smallholder farmers.&#x0D; Technological, social and interdisciplinary issues, communication and scale are some key challenges which impact the utility and uptake of SCFs in rural smallholder farms.&#x0D; The integration of both scientific and indigenous knowledge forecasts is an opportunity for further exploration.&#x0D;

Effectiveness of Collective Action in Reducing Transaction Cost for Smallholder Paddy Farmers in Tanzania

The majority of smallholder farmers (SHF) in developing countries are located in remote areas with poor infrastructure and they often fail to participate in markets due to the high-transaction costs involved. Collective Action (CA) has become an important strategy for SHF in developing countries to remain competitive in rapidly changing markets and has been tagged as a popular means of reducing transaction costs. This study was carried out to show the multifaceted problems of CA and to access the effectiveness of CA in reducing transaction costs for smallholder paddy farmers. The target populations for the study were members of Msalala Paddy Farmers Company (MPAFAC) belonging to five different wards, 35 groups, and different villages. It was found that the total amount spent by smallholder farmers on a transaction before joining MPAFAC was 205 USD by 45.7% of the respondent while 9.2% spent below 100 USD after joining MPAFAC.

Comparing smallholder farmers’ climate change perception with climate data: the case of Adansi North District of Ghana

This study adopted mixed methods design and employed questionnaire and interview to investigate climate trends and smallholder farmers' perception of climate change as well as the relationship between climate data and farmers' perception, and the determinants of perception in Adansi North District of Ghana. The study randomly and purposively selected 378 respondents and 41 key informants, respectively. Descriptive, inferential, trend and thematic analysis were employed. Results showed that the majority of smallholder farmers have observed increase in intensity (96.8%) and duration (94.7%) of temperature, and delay onset (82.8%) and early cessation (89.2%) of rainfall as well as increase in wind intensity (79.4%). Climate data also revealed rising trends of rainfall, wind speed and temperature. Nevertheless, there was no significant relationship between farmers' perception and climate data. Information from family and friends and government, particularly local institutions and extension service significantly influence farmers' perception. In addition, television and radio were significant predictors of farmers’ perception. The study recommends intensification of climate education, mass awareness and capacity development programmes.