Major Triad Research Articles

A Systematic Generalisation of Chord Configuration Methods in Harmonic Writing Based on a Big Data Context

Abstract In this paper, we systematically summarize the chord configuration method in harmonic writing, start from the connection principle of functional harmony, and use the knowledge of harmonic theory to research and explain the harmonic variability writing and chord configuration method. Secondly, based on big data algorithms, it is proposed that according to the chord composition law and progression logic, a chord system construction objective function is proposed, and a dynamic planning algorithm for automatic chord arrangement is designed to realize automatic chord arrangement by machine. Then, after reducing the chord repetition rate of the generated music, it was found that the ideal style type of music could not be achieved. For this problem, a hidden Markov-based chord auto-configuration model is proposed for optimization and experimental analysis of the chord configuration method in harmonic writing is carried out. The results show that the emotional response of the major triad music fragment with an octave decrease in overall pitch is a positive emotion, and the intensity of the emotion is significantly reduced compared to the major triad with no pitch change. The emotional response to the music fragment of the major triad with an octave increase in overall pitch was positive, and the emotional intensity of the major triad with no pitch change was significantly increased. This study improved students’ musical aesthetics, cognitive abilities, and experiences.

Reverse Extensions and Multi-Layered Experiences of Harmony in Drake’s Harmonic Loops

Drake's music features both lyrics and harmonies that often appear multilayered, ambiguous, and conflicted to listeners. Sometimes these multilayered harmonies are created through what I call "reverse extensions," where the bass line moves one or more thirds below the root of the chord in a fixed harmonic loop. These reverse extensions can sometimes be heard as a "harmonic-bass divorce" (de Clercq 2019) in which the bass line moves independently from the harmonic layer. However, I argue that they often can also be heard as single integrated harmonies, and that these plural hearings draw on intra- and inter-textual memory to create multilayered harmonic experiences which help evoke the conflicted and ambivalent feelings that Drake's lyrics are famous for.
 The plural identities of these chords can be understood by adapting elementary concepts from jazz theory, in which extended chords can be mimicked by or substituted with "slash chords" that add a bass note below the base triad; for example, G/A (G major triad with A in the bass, or AGBD) sounds like Am11 (ACEGBD). This chord sometimes seems to convey a double function of both G and Am. Relationships like this create an "extension-related family" of chords which often easily substitute for one another in chord progressions. I argue that by enumerating possibilities for chord substitutions, and plural hearings of extended chords, reverse extensions are an “enactive music theory” which frames chord identity as a structure subjectively enacted by an individual, rather than an objective property inherent “the music itself.”

Pleasantness of nonlinear distortion in isolated triads of synthetic timbre.

Distortion of sound is an important tool to increase the variety of timbres in musical compositions, but perceived pleasantness of distortion is understudied, and studies are limited to guitar practices in rock and metal music. This study applied a more systematic approach, using synthetic timbre and creating an audio-plugin that realized nonlinear symmetric and asymmetric distortion. Participants evaluated the perceived pleasantness of isolated triads differing in distortion (undistorted, symmetric, asymmetric), tonality (minor, major), and position (low, high, wide), taking baseline differences of tonality and position into account. Perceived pleasantness decreased by distortion, and the decrease was stronger for minor than major triads and stronger for asymmetric than symmetric distortion. Position played only a minor role in the evaluations, except for stimuli in high positions. Stimulus-based analyses showed a relation between pleasantness and the variability of roughness, mean spectral centroid, and mean sound intensity. Subject-based analyses revealed a smaller decrease in pleasantness with a preference for electronic music. Importantly, some distorted triads were rated as pleasant in absolute terms: major triads with symmetric distortion in low or wide position. That is, indeed, distortion is not always categorized as unpleasant but can be perceived as pleasant.

A Hebbian Model to Account for Musical Expertise Differences in a Working Memory Task

The TBRS*C computational model provides a mathematical implementation of the cognitive processes involved in complex span tasks. The logic of the core processes, i.e., encoding, refreshing/time-based decay, and chunking, is based on Hebbian learning, synaptic facilitation, and long-term neural plasticity, respectively. The modeling, however, takes place on a cognitive rather than a physiological level. Chunking is implemented as a process of searching for sequences of memoranda in long-term memory and recoding them as a single unit which increases the efficacy of memory maintenance. Using TBRS*C simulations, the present study investigated how chunking and central working memory processes change with expertise. Hobby musicians and music students completed a complex span task in which sequences of twelve note symbols were presented for serial recall of pitch. After the presentation of each memorandum, participants performed an unknown, notated melody on an electric piano. To manipulate the potential for chunking, we varied whether sequences of memoranda formed meaningful tonal structures (major triads) or arbitrary trichords. Hobby musicians and music students were each split up in a higher-expertise and a lower-expertise group and TBRS*C simulations were performed for each group individually. In the simulations, higher-expertise hobby musicians encoded memoranda more rapidly, invested less time in chunk search, and recognized chunks with a higher chance than lower-expertise hobby musicians. Parameter estimates for music students showed only marginal expertise differences. We conclude that expertise in the TBRS model can be conceptualized by a rapid access to long-term memory and by chunking, which leads to an increase in the opportunity and efficacy of refreshing.

Revealing the Mystery of Emotions in Sounds The Theory of Musical Equilibration Explains the Impact of Ordered Sounds as the Listener’s Identification with Processes of Will

ABSTRACT Science has long been concerned with the question of how it is possible for music to elicit emotions‒so far, however, with only moderate success. The theory of musical equilibration shines a light on this problem from a new perspective. The theory was first proposed in 1997 by German music theorist, Bernd Willimek, who further developed it with his wife and fellow theorist, Daniela Willimek. Music itself, the theory goes, cannot generate emotions directly. Rather, emotions should be understood as a response to the processes of will that are encoded in music. By identifying with these processes of will, listeners experience music emotionally. This is comparable to the situation of moviegoers who identify with the protagonist on screen and thereby vicariously experience emotions. In this work, the affirmative character of the major triad and the negative character of the minor triad are substantiated. According to the theory of musical equilibration, the volume at which a minor chord is played determines whether it is perceived as sorrow or anger. Furthermore, the authors discuss issues such as why a diminished seventh chord is well suited as the score for film scenes involving fear, or how an augmented chord can convey amazement and astonishment. To show the practical application of the theory of musical equilibration, the authors carried out tests with school (K-12) and university students (basic test part A, basic test part B, Rocky test).

Furious Feedback and the Revolutionary Ode to Noise

Furious Feedback and the Revolutionary Ode to Noise

Hollywood Harmony: Musical Wonder and the Sound of Cinema

Hollywood Harmony: Musical Wonder and the Sound of Cinema

Istvan Pavai: Hungarian Folk Dance Music of Transylvania – Review

Among the territories of the Carpathian Basin inhabited by Hungarians, Transylvania proved to be the most suitable field for the interethnic research of the music related to choreographic folklore. Most professional musicians in the rural areas, who receive regular or intermittent payment in money or other forms of remuneration, are of Romani ethnicity. The existence of musical instruments in the accompaniment of dances is richly documented since the 15th and 16th centuries. Hungarian ethnochoreology defines three types of musical accompaniments for the dances: rhythmic accompaniment (without melody), merely melodic accompaniment, and complex accompaniment created by the combination the first two types. A number of accompaniment types, considered ideal by local communities, had been established. These include the duos flute–gardon, fiddle–gardon (the gardon/gordunǎ being a stringed percussion instrument), fiddle or flute with koboz/cobzǎ, the trios made up of violin–cimbalom/ţambal–bass, or fiddle–kontra–double bass, the most common band consisting of a fiddle, a three-stringed kontra with flat bridge, and a bass (without cimbalom/ţambal). The rhythmic formulae provided by these instrumental ensembles specialized in accompaniment-playing constitute the musical support of the dances, at the same time they play an important role in defining the dance types. The three main types of rhythmic accompaniment are: slow dűvő/duva (in quarters), fast dűvő/duva (in eighths) and the estam (produced by eighth notes, alternately played by different instruments). The musical folklore of Transylvania inherited several principles of harmonization, such as the drone/ison principle, various forms of heterophony, polyphony focused on pivotal melodic notes, the accompaniment with mixtures of major triads, and the tonal-functional harmonization.

A Chord Recognition Method of Guitar Sound Using Its Constituent Tone Information

AbstractA simple method for identifying musical chords of audio sound played by a guitar is proposed herein. The chord recognition is achieved by comparing similarities between normalized note numbers extracted from the spectrum of the sound and those generated by a database. The database consists of normalized note numbers corresponding to the fundamental frequency of the chord notes, and the database of the chords with different root is shared. The database of five types of the chords were prepared; Major triad, Minor triad, Major seventh, Minor seventh, and Dominant seventh chords. The name of the chord is determined by the root played. Over 800 sounds of the chords played with electric guitars were tested, and the recognition rate showed good performance, which indicates the feasibility of this method. © 2021 Institute of Electrical Engineers of Japan. Published by Wiley Periodicals LLC.

Sweetness is in the ear of the beholder: chord preference across United Kingdom and Pakistani listeners.

The majority of research in the field of music perception has been conducted with Western participants, and it has remained unclear which aspects of music perception are culture dependent, and which are universal. The current study compared how participants unfamiliar with Western music (people from the Khowar and Kalash tribes native to Northwest Pakistan with minimal exposure to Western music) perceive affect (positive versus negative) in musical chords compared with United Kingdom (UK) listeners, as well as the overall preference for these chords. The stimuli consisted of four distinct chord types (major, minor, augmented, and chromatic) and were played as both vertical blocks (pitches presented concurrently) and arpeggios (pitches presented successively). The results suggest that the Western listener major-positive minor-negative affective distinction is opposite for Northwest Pakistani listeners, arguably because of the reversed prevalence of these chords in the two music cultures. The aversion to the harsh dissonance of the chromatic cluster is present cross-culturally, but the preference for the consonance of the major triad varies between UK and Northwest Pakistani listeners, depending on cultural familiarity. Our findings imply not only notable cultural variation but also commonalities in chord perception across Western and non-Western listeners.

Chunking in tonal contexts: Information compression during serial recall of visually presented musical notes

Chunking is defined as information compression by means of encoding meaningful units. To advance the understanding of chunking in musical memory, the present study tested characteristics of melodic sequences that might enable a parsimonious memory representation, namely, the presence of a clear tonal context and of melodic cells with clear labels. Musical note symbols, which formed either triads (Experiment 1) or cadences (Experiment 2), were presented visually and sequentially to musically experienced participants for immediate serial recall. The melodic sequences were varied on the within-participant factors list length (long vs. short list) and tonal structure (chunking-supportive vs. chunking-obstructive). Chunking-supportive sequences contained tones from a single diatonic key that formed melodic cells with a clear label, such as “C major triad”. Transitional errors showed that participants grouped notes into melodic cells. Mixed logistic regression modeling revealed that recall was more accurate in chunking-supportive sequences and that this advantage was more pronounced for more experienced participants in the long list length condition of Experiment 2. The findings suggest that a clear tonal context and melodic cells with clear labels benefit chunking in melodic processing, but that the subtleties of the process are additionally influenced by type, size, and number of melodic cells.

Euler’s Theories of Musical Tuning With an English Translation of Du Véritable Caractère de la Musique Moderne

Du Véritable Caractère de la Musique Moderne (E315), a work almost unknown to musical scholars, is an extremely interesting document in the history of tuning systems. A tuning system is simply an arrangement of sound frequencies for use in music. A just tuning is an arrangement in which the ratios of these frequencies are all ratios of whole numbers- preferably small ones. Classically, these ratios involve only factors of 2, 3, and 5. In particular, a very fundamental chord in music of many genres, the so-called major triad, Has frequency ratios 4:5:6. Euler proposes introducing the prime 7, with a fundamental chord made up of ratios 4:5:6:7. Not only that, but he asserts that modern composers are already using such ratios, albeit in a disguised or subliminal form. These ideas have had little lasting influence- indeed, Euler himself seems to have abandoned them later, as is pointed out in the notes to this translation. Nevertheless they are striking as an example of a certain type of logic pushed to the extreme.

Andersen-Tawil Syndrome: A Comprehensive Review.

Andersen-Tawil syndrome (ATS) is a very rare orphan genetic multisystem channelopathy without structural heart disease (with rare exceptions). ATS type 1 is inherited in an autosomal dominant fashion and is caused by mutations in the KCNJ2 gene, which encodes the α subunit of the K+ channel protein Kir2.1 (in ≈ 50-60% of cases). ATS type 2 is in turn linked to a rare mutation in the KCNJ5-GIRK4 gene that encodes the G protein-sensitive-activated inwardly rectifying K+ channel Kir3.4 (15%), which carries the acetylcholine-induced potassium current. About 30% of cases are de novo/sporadic, suggesting that additional as-yet unidentified genes also cause the disorder. A triad of periodic muscle paralysis, repolarization changes in the electrocardiogram, and structural body changes characterize ATS. The typical muscular change is episodic flaccid muscle weakness. Prolongation of the QU/QUc intervals and normal or minimally prolonged QT/QTc intervals with a tendency to ventricular arrhythmias are typical repolarization changes. Bidirectional ventricular tachycardia is the hallmark ventricular arrhythmia, but also premature ventricular contractions, and rarely, polymorphic ventricular tachycardia of torsade de pointes type may be present. Patients with ATS have characteristic physical developmental dysmorphisms that affect the face, skull, limbs, thorax, and stature. Mild learning difficulties and a distinct neurocognitive phenotype (deficits in executive function and abstract reasoning) have been described. About 60% of affected individuals have all features of the major triad. The purpose of this review is to present historical aspects, nomenclature (observations/criticisms), epidemiology, genetics, electrocardiography, arrhythmias, electrophysiological mechanisms, diagnostic criteria/clues of periodic paralysis, prognosis, and management of ATS.

It’s only rock ‘n roll (but I like it): Chord perception and rock’s liberal harmonic palette

Both music-theoretic accounts and corpus analyses indicate that rock routinely employs chords that deviate from the norms of common-practice music. Yet we know little about how listeners experience the chords that make up rock’s liberal harmonic palette. In the present study, participants in two online experiments rated major chords that followed a short tonal sequence (a major scale + tonic major triad). Liking ratings obtained in Experiment 1 replicated earlier work showing that listeners prefer rock-typical targets—chords that are common in rock, but lie outside the basic diatonic set—to atypical, rarely used targets (Craton, Juergens, Michalak, & Poirier, 2016). Goodness of fit ratings with the same stimuli in Experiment 2 were similar to the liking ratings. High ratings for rock-typical target chords across the two experiments were not an artifact of their register and the pattern of responses was similar across four levels level of music training. In addition, the mean fitness ratings were approximated by simulations conducted with an auditory short-term memory (ASTM) model (Leman, 2000). Considered together, the findings provide evidence that listeners perceive rock-typical chords to be normal components of a key and that they may do so based on information in the auditory signal alone, without recourse to statistical learning mechanisms or representations of tonal knowledge. We speculate that bottom-up processes operating directly on the auditory signal create a perceptual ranking of chord fitness, which provides the harmonic palette from which composers/improvisers in different musical systems may conservatively (common-practice) or liberally (rock) choose. The mean data are available in tabular form for modelers in the online supplemental material.

Implicit Absolute Pitch Representation Affects Basic Tonal Perception

It is undisputed that the cognition of tonal music is primarily established by pitch relationships set within a tonal scheme such as a major or minor key. The corresponding notion—that absolute pitch and absolute key are largely inconsequential for tonal cognition—thus seems inevitable. Here, we challenge the latter notion, presenting data suggesting that absolute pitch and absolute key significantly modify listeners’ judgments of tonal fit and tonal tension. In two experiments extending the probe tone technique (as applied in Krumhansl & Kessler, 1982) participants heard a brief tonal context (a major triad in Experiment 1, a harmonic progression in Experiment 2) followed by individual probe tones, and rated how well each probe fitted the preceding context, as well as the musical tension conveyed by each probe. Two maximally distant key contexts, G major and D♭ major, were used in both experiments and in both tasks. Ratings revealed significant absolute pitch effects in both tasks, though in different ways. In the tonal fit task, diatonic pitches in G major were rated higher than those in D♭ major; in contrast, chromatic pitches were rated higher in D♭ major, compared to G. In the tension task, overall ratings were significantly higher for D♭ major contexts than for G major context (Experiment 1). Importantly, these effects reflect the occurrence frequency of pitch classes and keys in the tonal repertory: frequent pitch classes were rated as better fits than rarer ones, and a rarer key (D♭) rated tenser than a frequently-occurring key (G). Absolute pitch effects were most strongly manifested by participants without formal training, for whom the relative pitch effects of the tonal hierarchy were weak, and were stronger when tonal context was weaker (Experiment 1 as compared to Experiment 2). Results suggest that implicit absolute pitch perception, reflecting key and pitch class occurrence frequency, significantly affects tonal music processing; such absolute pitch effects may be activated principally when tonal perception or tonal cues are lacking.

The Art of Improvising: The Be-Bop Language and the Major Seventh Chords

This article represents the third part of a simple and intuitive method, finalized to “speaking”, almost immediately, the Be-Bop language, without possessing any particular jazz background. We herein exclusively discuss the improvisation techniques regarding the Major Seventh Chords. Starting from a specific extended “sentence”, built around the Major Triad, we show how we can instantly deduce further sentences, how to modify them, by cutting and adding “words”, and how to effectively combine them. Moreover, we briefly explain how to deal with Tonicizations and ordinary Jazz Turnarounds.

The Art of Improvising: The Be-Bop Language and the Minor Seventh Chords

The aim of this article lies fundamentally in illustrating the first part of a simple and intuitive method, finalized to “speaking” the Be-Bop language immediately, without possessing any jazz background whatsoever. The main peculiarity of the method consists in the fact that the attention of the improviser is always focused on Triads. We herein exclusively discuss the improvisation techniques regarding the dominant seventh chords. Starting from a specific extended “sentence”, built around the Major Triad, we show how to instantly deduce further sentences, how to modify them, by cutting and adding “words”, and how to effectively combine them.

On the fluidity of consonance and dissonance: The influence of musical context.

The consonance/dissonance (C/D) level of a triadic chord is not a fixed or absolute value. Rather, it is fluid, since C/D depends both on a chord’s sonic characteristics and on the musical context in which it appears. To test the fluidity of C/D—the extent to which C/D perception is dependent on musical context—4 types of chords (major, minor, augmented, and diminished triads) were presented in isolation (“without musical context”) and as part of a short cadence (IV-V-I, “with musical context”). The C/D level of each chord was judged, as was the overall C/D and pleasantness/unpleasantness (P/U) level of the cadences. When isolated, major triads were considered most consonant, followed by minor and diminished triads, while augmented triads were judged most dissonant. In the context of a musical cadence, this rank order remained the same. However, evaluations of the dissonance of augmented and diminished chords varied depending on each chord’s functional position within the cadence. For instance, diminished triads were relatively consonant when on the subdominant, while augmented triads were relatively dissonant when on the tonic. These findings lend support to the hypotheses that: (a) the degree to which the harmonic function of a chord is familiar, and (b) the degree to which a chord’s stability (and hence also the listener’s expectation) is violated contribute to the perception of C/D.

Roll Over Beethoven? An Initial Investigation of Listeners’ Perception of Chords Used in Rock Music

Popular mainstream music (hereafter, rock) employs the basic set of chords built on the diatonic scale but also many others (de Clercq & Temperley, 2011; Stephenson, 2002). In an initial investigation of listeners’ perception of rock harmony, we adapted a rating task developed by Krumhansl (1990) in her pioneering studies of the common-practice harmonic hierarchy. Participants provided surprise and liking ratings for 35 (major, minor, dominant 7, and control) target chords that followed short key-establishing musical passages (a major scale + tonic major triad, or a major pentatonic scale + tonic major triad) or white noise. Liking ratings for targets that followed a musical passage indicated that listeners prefer some chords that are common in rock, but that lie outside the basic diatonic set, to atypical chords; this effect depended on chord quality and was clearest for major target chords. The findings provide an impetus for further research exploring the harmonic hierarchy in listeners with varying musical backgrounds; it appears to be more inclusive and less differentiated than is commonly thought.

Motor skills of children with autistic spectrum disorder

The contribution contains results of a research of motor skills of children with autistic spectrum disorder. The group of children represents besides major triad of symptoms, also described difficulties in the field of motor skills. Our aim to find out what motor skills of these children are in comparison with intact population and what differences are found in individual motor items, i.e. in fine motor skills, gross motor skills and in balance. The data was gained with the use of standardized Movement Assessment Battery test for Children 2 (MABC-2). Objective testing of this group of children is relatively difficult. There were successfully tested 36 children with ASD during this phase of research. The research demonstrated evident motor disorder at 86% of children in the observed sample. Statistically significant were worse results in the field of fine motor skills compared to the results in gross motor skills and balance.