Major Sewage Treatment Plants Research Articles

Impact of Urbanization on Rivers, India

Abstract: A Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) report of 2015 brought out the fact that 61,948 million litres of urban sewage is generated on a daily basis in India. But the cities have an installed sewage treatment capacity of only 38 per cent of this. In reality more than this amount goes untreated into the rivers or water bodies as the treatment capacity of major sewage treatment plants (STPs) in the country is around 66 per cent of the installed capacity as per CPCB findings of 2013. As a result, more than 38,000 million litres of waste water goes into the major rivers, water bodies and even percolates into the ground every day. Accelerated transformation of ‘urban riverfront development’ has been pushed along the riverbanks in the last few decades. The riverfront development has been reduced to just cosmetic ‘river beautification’ and unaccountable money spent to increase its real estate and commercial value. Increasing urbanization in the river basin is followed by a number of serious Physical, Chemical & Environmental impacts on the health of the river basin system. We are in the country where rivers are considered as mother but it is unfortunate to say that Indian rivers are much more polluted in comparison of other rivers of the world. Through this Dissertation it will be tried to understand the major reason citizens are not sensitive towards river and develop understanding how we can rejuvenate our tributary rivers.

Surveillance of SARS-CoV-2 spread using wastewater-based epidemiology: Comprehensive study

SARS-CoV-2 pandemic is having a devastating effect on human lives. Recent reports have shown that majority of the individuals recovered from COVID-19 have serious health complications, which is going to be a huge economic burden globally. Given the wide-spread transmission of SARS-CoV-2 it is almost impossible to test every individual in densely populated countries. Recent reports have shown that sewage-based surveillance can be used as holistic approach to understand the spread of the pandemic within a population or area. Here we have estimated the spread of SARS-CoV-2 in the city of Hyderabad, India, which is a home for nearly 10 million people. The sewage samples were collected from all the major sewage treatment plants (STPs) and were processed for detecting the viral genome using the standard Reverse Transcription Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) method. Interestingly, inlet samples of STPs were positive for SARS-CoV-2, while the outlets were negative, which indicates that the standard sewage treatment methods are efficient in eliminating the SARS-CoV-2 viral particles. Based on the detected viral gene copies per litre and viral particle shedding per individual, the total number of individuals exposed to SARS-CoV-2 was estimated. Through this study we suggest that sewage-based surveillance is an effective approach to study the infection dynamics, which helps in efficient management of the SARS-CoV-2 spread.

Temporal and spatial variations of water quality in the Newark Bay Estuary

Long-term (summer 2015–2018 and short-term (summer 2018) water quality monitoring was performed to understand spatial and temporal variations of surface water quality in the Newark Bay Estuary, as well as the Upper New York Bay, parts of the Hudson-Raritan Estuary in the New York–New Jersey metropolitan area. Electrical conductivity (EC), pH, temperature, and dissolved oxygen (DO) were measured in the field, while dissolved nitrate, phosphate, and ammonia concentrations were determined in the laboratory. Long-term and short-term water quality monitoring data consistently indicated that nutrients are significantly elevated in the Hackensack River most likely due to sewage effluent from a major sewage treatment plant. Dissolved oxygen levels were sufficiently high in most parts of the estuaries, whereas the Hackensack River showed a sign of hypoxia. Nutrients in the estuaries showed significant temporal variations typically by 2 to 3-fold during the 1-month short-term monitoring period, and were correlated with EC, DO or pH. The effects of combined sewer overflows (CSOs) during wet weather on the water quality of Newark Bay appeared uncertain except for ammonia, but long-term effects of CSOs need to be further investigated because nutrients from CSOs can accumulate in bottom sediments and be remobilized. Frequent water quality monitoring is necessary to better understand the impact of human activities on temporal variations of nutrients in urban estuaries and to efficiently protect coastal ecosystems.

Signatures of tetraether lipids reveal anthropogenic overprinting of natural organic matter in sediments of the Thames Estuary, UK

Intertidal foreshore sediments from a 110km stretch of the Thames Estuary were analysed for glycerol dialkyl glycerol tetraethers (GDGTs) to track soil organic matter (OM) input and evaluate the impact of coastal urbanisation on their distribution. Concentration of branched (br)GDGTs ranged from <1 to 15μg/g organic carbon (OC) and crenarchaeol ranged from 0.6 to 19μg/g OC. An overall decrease in brGDGTs was observed from the inner Thames (Brentford) to the outer Thames (Isle of Grain), suggesting a drop in soil OM input towards the sea. In contrast, crenarchaeol concentration was highest around east London rather than towards the open sea. Such elevated crenarchaeol concentration occurred in the section of the river most influenced by anthropogenic pollution, such as discharge points for London’s major sewage treatment plants, docks and power plants. The non-systematic spatial distribution of crenarchaeol was also reflected in the branched isoprenoid tetraether (BIT) index. The highest BIT values occurred upstream and in close proximity to salt marshes (0.8–1), whereas the lowest values (0.3–0.5) were towards the sea. However, unusually low values (0.4) were observed in the river section that had high crenarchaeol concentration. In contrast, bulk δ13C values were insensitive to London’s anthropogenic influence. This suggests that the natural systematic decrease in BIT index in the estuary is overprinted by London’s anthropogenic activity between Deptford Creek and Tilbury. We therefore advise caution when interpreting the BIT index for sediments in close proximity to megacities discharging industrial and municipal waste that can become incorporated into the near surface sedimentary record.

The Life Cycle Assessment of Carbon Dioxide Emission of Four Major Sewage Treatment Plants in Taiwan

The sewage comes from buildings is drained into public sewers. The sewage is then treated in a sewage treatment plant to meet the sanitation standards before being discharged to the water cycle in nature. The sewage treatment process consumes energy and produce CO2. In this research, the idea of streamlined life cycle assessment was applied. The CO2 emission of sewage treatment was assessed from direct energy consumption of four major sewage treatment plants in Taiwan. The results show that the unit CO2 emission of sewage treatment calculated from four plants is 0.174 kg-CO2/m3. The CO2 emission at in-plant sewage treatment stage takes more than 95% of total CO2 emission for most plants. The results suggest that CO2 emission of sewage treatment can be calculated from energy consumption at in-plant sewage treatment stage to simplify the calculation. This database will be important reference for water resource research.

Determining the footprint of sewage discharges in a coastal lagoon in South-Western Europe

Ria Formosa is a highly productive lagoon in South-Western Europe, supporting 90% of Portuguese clam production. Decreases in shellfish production have been ascribed to deterioration of water quality due to sewage discharges. Nevertheless, a thorough study considering their impact on the whole lagoon system has been missing. This work determined the sewage footprint from the major sewage treatment plants (STP) regarding eutrophication and microbial contamination within a two-year monitoring program. This focused on salinity, oxygen, nutrients, chlorophyll-a and faecal coliforms. Areas closer to sewage discharges showed an evident impact with maximum effects detected at the major STP. However, globally, the Ria Formosa did not show clear eutrophication problems due to high tidal flushing. Ammonium, oxygen, chlorophyll-a and faecal coliforms, unlike the other parameters, showed no seasonality. Microbiological contamination was of great concern and public health issues could be avoided by settling shellfish beds at least 500m away from discharge points.

Development of an ASM1 dynamic simulation model for an activated sludge process in United Arab Emirates

The current study develops an ASM1-based dynamic simulation model for the activated sludge process of a major sewage treatment plant located in the United Arab Emirates. As a first step towards the model calibration and validation, two campaigns of field measurements and lab-controlled experiments were conducted to estimate a number of kinetic and stoichiometric parameters required by the ASM1 model. The first campaign was during the winter season with average temperature of 25°C and the second was during the summer season with average temperature of 39°C. Each campaign involved collection of composite samples at every hour for five consecutive days and analyzed for several variables including COD, BOD5, SS, VSS, TOC, TN, TKN, NH4-N, NO3-N, and NO2-N. Parameters for reaction kinetics and stoichiometry were determined based on winter measurements using respirometry techniques recommended by different studies. The paper reports the values of these parameters in addition to results of the dynamic calibration of ASM1 conducted using GPS-X simulation environment. A steady-state simulation was first conducted to fit the modeled sludge production to the sludge production calculated from plant average data collected during the measurement campaign. The model validation was conducted considering summer measurements after modifying a number of temperature-dependent parameters. The results indicated reasonable agreement between the measured and simulated effluent variables of COD, TSS, and NH4-N.

Sustainable reuse potential of municipal sewage sludge in south-east Australia

With the aim of reusing municipal sewage sludge, this paper presents the chemical and organic properties of sludge from a major sewage treatment plant in south–eastern Australia. The results show that the concentrations of all OCPs and majority of PAHs were below or close to laboratory detection limits. Concentrations of heavy metals in sludge samples were compared with typical sludge testing results from the USA and UK. Concentrations of heavy metals from the south–eastern Australian sludge samples were noted to be much lower than concentrations of same metals reported in the UK but slightly higher than in the USA. Concentrations of lead in south–eastern Australian sludge samples were however found to be lower than the US sludge samples. Results on the leachate testing on aerated and nitrogen purged samples revealed minor differences in the results. Potential reuse options for the sewage sludge in agricultural applications are also discussed.

The occurrence and distribution of pharmaceutical compounds in the effluents of a major sewage treatment plant in Northern Taiwan and the receiving coastal waters

The pharmaceutical residues in waste water from the largest sewage treatment plant (STP) in Northern Taiwan and in seawater around the effluent discharged area were determined. An environmental risk assessment for the marine environment was conducted based on the environment risk quotient (ERQ). The concentrations of the analyzed compounds in STP influent and effluent were generally higher than those found in coastal seawater. Relatively higher values were found at the estuarine mouth and the discharged area, suggesting that the STP effluent is a point source. The removal efficiency and half life of the analyzed compounds were 6.3–46.8% and 3–18days, respectively. The ERQ value theoretical calculation was generally greater than 1. However, when the measured concentrations replaced the predicated concentrations, the ERQ values were considerably lower than 1. Therefore, our results call for a re-evaluation of the risks posed by pharmaceuticals to coastal marine ecosystems in Northern Taiwan.

Cost-Benefit Analysis in a Framework of Stakeholder Involvement and Integrated Coastal Zone Modeling

Active involvement of local stakeholders is currently an increasingly important requirement in European environmental regulations such as the EU Water Framework Directive (WFD) and the EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD). The same is true for economic analyses such as cost-benefit analysis (CBA). For example, the Swedish WFD implementation requires i) quantification of cost and benefits of proposed measures and ii) stakeholder involvement. How can these two requirements be integrated in practice? And can such requirements facilitate implementation of projects with a potential net benefit? This paper presents a stepwise CBA procedure with participatory elements and applies it for evaluating nutrient management options for reducing eutrophication effects in the coastal area of Himmerfjarden SW of Stockholm, Sweden. The CBA indicates a positive net benefit for a combination of options involving increased nitrogen removal at a major sewage treatment plant, creation of new wetlands and connecting a proportion of private sewers to sewage treatment plants. The procedure also illustrates how the interdisciplinary development of a coupled ecological-economic simulation model can be used as a tool for facilitating the involvement of stakeholders in a CBA.

How seasonality affects the flow of estrogens and their conjugates in one of Japan’s most populous catchments

A detailed study of the free and conjugated estrogen load discharged by the eight major sewage treatment plants into the Yodo River basin, Japan was carried out. Sampling campaigns were focused on the winter and autumn seasons from 2005 to 2008 and the free estrogens estrone(E1), 17β-estradiol(E2), estriol(E3), 17α-ethynylestradiol(EE2) as well as their conjugated (sulfate and glucuronide) forms. For both sewage effluent and river water E2 and E1 concentrations were greatest during the winter period (December–March). This coincides with the period of lowest rainfall and lowest temperatures in Japan. E1 was the dominant estrogenic component in effluent (means of 10–50 ng/L) followed by E2 (means of 0.5–3 ng/L). The estrogen sulfate conjugates were found intermittently in the 0.5–1.7 ng/L concentration range in the sewage effluents. The greatest estrogen exposure was found to be in the Katsura River tributary which exceeded 1 ng/L E2-equivalents during the winter period.

Getting Straight on What’s Flushed: “Sewage Epidemiology” Measures Community Drug Consumption

Vol. 116, No. 8 EnvironewsOpen AccessGetting Straight on What’s Flushed: “Sewage Epidemiology” Measures Community Drug Consumption Tanya Tillett Tanya Tillett Search for more papers by this author Published:1 August 2008https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.116-a351aCited by:1AboutSectionsPDF ToolsDownload CitationsTrack Citations ShareShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InReddit Active pharmaceutical agents and other chemicals in sewage pose a considerable concern when one considers the potential for inadvertent exposures through treated water. On the flip side, wastewater can also provide a wealth of economical and accessible epidemiologic data on common drug products consumed and excreted into community sewage systems. Now researchers have successfully tested a new “sewage epidemiology” analysis strategy to obtain near real-time information on community usage rates of drugs, allowing trends and patterns to be promptly monitored [EHP 116:1027–1032; Zuccato et al.].Many drug usage studies focus on prevalence data—reported use rates based on the integration of population surveys with medical records, drug production and seizure rates, and crime statistics. But obtaining information through these channels can often be time-consuming and the accuracy questionable, as the data are based partly on self-reported use. Using a novel approach first proposed in 2001, the researchers in the current study gathered data from sewage treatment plants in Milan (Italy), Lugano (Switzerland), and London (England) to obtain information on community-wide consumption of cocaine, heroin, cannabis, and amphetamines.The investigators collected composite samples of untreated wastewater from major sewage treatment plants in each of the cities every 20 minutes for 24 hours in a time-proportional mode and pooled the samples using a computer-controlled device. They also tested field data from a given treatment plant for reproducibility over time: samples were taken on consecutive days for 1 week on 3 different occasions in Milan and Lugano, and on 2 days at 2 major plants in London. Wastewater samples were analyzed by liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry, which measured drug residues using a highly selective multiresidue assay.This new testing method enabled the research team to accurately measure the drugs in wastewater samples using objective quantitative data—drug concentration, wastewater flow rate, and population size—and to acquire near real-time reporting of results because of the short 1- to 2-day completion time for mass spectrometric analysis of samples. The new approach also makes it possible to integrate wastewater monitoring data with other information on drug use to obtain more refined estimates of community consumption patterns and user profiles.The authors note this approach has certain limitations, including lack of data regarding the number of drug users in a given community, but say that the results on overall consumption rates compare reasonably well with official prevalence-based figures. For the sake of accuracy, detailed information would be needed on the metabolism and kinetics of any compound for which the approach is used. Furthermore, it can be difficult to accurately characterize “typical” users of certain pharmaceuticals or drugs. However, the authors state that with further testing, the method could be used in future research to provide real-time epidemiologic data for application to other public health issues.FiguresReferencesRelatedDetailsCited by Cecinato A, Balducci C, Mollica R and Serpelloni G (2013) Social [and health] relevance of psychotropic substances monitoring in air, Environmental Pollution, 10.1016/j.envpol.2013.03.067, 179, (27-32), Online publication date: 1-Aug-2013. Vol. 116, No. 8 August 2008Metrics About Article Metrics Publication History Originally published1 August 2008Published in print1 August 2008 Financial disclosuresPDF download License information EHP is an open-access journal published with support from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health. All content is public domain unless otherwise noted. Note to readers with disabilities EHP strives to ensure that all journal content is accessible to all readers. However, some figures and Supplemental Material published in EHP articles may not conform to 508 standards due to the complexity of the information being presented. If you need assistance accessing journal content, please contact [email protected]. Our staff will work with you to assess and meet your accessibility needs within 3 working days.

Estimating Community Drug Abuse by Wastewater Analysis

BackgroundThe social and medical problems of drug abuse are a matter of increasing global concern. To tackle drug abuse in changing scenarios, international drug agencies need fresh methods to monitor trends and patterns of illicit drug consumption.ObjectiveWe tested a sewage epidemiology approach, using levels of excreted drug residues in wastewater, to monitor collective use of the major drugs of abuse in near real time.MethodsSelected drug target residues derived from use of cocaine, opiates, cannabis, and amphetamines were measured by mass spectrometry in wastewater collected at major sewage treatment plants in Milan (Italy), Lugano (Switzerland), and London (United Kingdom). The amounts of drug residues conveyed to the treatment plants, reflecting the amounts collectively excreted with urine, were used to estimate consumption of the active parent drugs.ResultsReproducible and characteristic profiles of illicit drug use were obtained in the three cities, thus for the first time quickly revealing changes in local consumption (e.g., cocaine consumption rose significantly on weekends in Milan). Profiles of local drug consumption based on waste-water measurements are in line with national annual prevalence estimates.ConclusionsPatterns and trends of drug abuse in local communities can be promptly monitored by this tool, a convenient new complement to more complex, lengthy survey methods. In principle, searching the sewage for excreted compounds relevant to public health issues appears to have the potential to become a convenient source of real-time epidemiologic information.

Synthetic polycyclic musks in Hong Kong sewage sludge

Synthetic polycyclic musks [Cashmeran (DPMI), Celestolide (ADBI), Phantolide (AHMI), Traseolide (ATII), Tonalide (AHTN), and Galaxolide (HHCB)] were determined in dewatered sludge samples from 10 major sewage treatment plants in Hong Kong using primary treatment (PT), secondary treatment (SecT) or chemical-enhanced primary treatment (CEPT) methods. The concentrations of HHCB, AHTN, AHMI and ADBI ranged from below detection limits to 78.6mg/kg dry weight. HHCB and AHTN were the two predominant polycyclic musks in sludge samples, suggesting the extensive use of these two polycyclic musks in Hong Kong. Polycyclic musk levels in CEPT sludge were significantly higher than those in SecT and PT sludge, suggesting that CEPT sludge has a higher ability to retain polycyclic musks. Comparisons to global concentrations revealed that HHCB and AHTN concentrations detected in Hong Kong sludge ranked first and second respectively. However, the estimated levels of HHCB and AHTN in the discharged effluent from sewage treatment plants may pose low potential risks to aquatic organisms according to the threshold effect levels derived for fish. Nevertheless, the polycyclic musks released in sewage treatment plant effluents may bioconcentrate and bioaccumulate in the marine environment in Hong Kong. Therefore, monitoring studies in marine ecosystems, particularly on the two prevailing polycyclic musks, are necessary.

Potential microbial and chemical hazards to waterbirds at the Western Treatment Plant

Summary The Western Treatment Plant, a major sewage treatment plant west of Melbourne, Australia, is widely regarded as a significant conservation site for waterbirds. But experiences from various parts of the world suggest that sewage can also be hazardous to waterbirds, and has probably been responsible for mass‐kill events. The intent of this contribution is to raise awareness about the potential for adverse impacts of sewage treatment plants on waterbirds, and to stimulate debate on the issue, with the ultimate objective of developing appropriate management strategies to mitigate the risk of mass kills.

Butyltin and phenyltin compounds in eels (Anguilla anguilla)

Tributyltin (TBT) and its degradation products, dibutyltin (DBT) and monobutyltin (MBT), together with triphenyltin (TPT), were investigated in eels from the Thames Estuary and the Weston Canal (Merseyside). Within individual eels, the concentrations of organotin (OT) compounds varied considerably between tissues. Tributyltin concentrations were highest in heart and gall bladder and lowest in muscle and gonad. Tributyltin was generally the most predominant of butyltin (BT) compounds present in eel tissues and DBT the least. Phenyltins were detected in eels from both locations, notably the Weston Canal where TPT was present up to 0.367 μg g−1 (as Sn) in liver samples. Concentrations of OTs in liver (and muscle) were independent of weight and length in the eel populations examined. In a survey of OTs in eel populations along the Thames Estuary hepatic TBT levels ranged from 0.066–0.347 μg g−1 dry wt (as Sn) in liver of eels and were generally highest in the mid-section of the estuary, resembling the distribution pattern of TBT in sediment. Proportions of TBT to total BTs were also elevated in eel from this section of the waterway, consistent with continuing inputs in this region, albeit at relatively low levels. Major sewage treatment plants are sited here and may represent a possible source.

Altered serum sex steroids and vitellogenin induction in walleye (Stizostedion vitreum) collected near a metropolitan sewage treatment plant.

Several recent in situ studies have reported that domestic and mixed domestic/industrial sewage effluents contain one or more natural or anthropogenic estrogenic substances. Those studies examined caged or feral fish for the presence of the egg yolk precursor protein, vitellogenin (VTG), in the blood of male fish. We have previously reported that male, feral carp (Cyprinus carpio) obtained from the effluent channel of a major sewage treatment plant (STP) exhibited depressed serum testosterone (T) concentrations, as well as detectable levels of VTG. The present study examines male and female walleye (Stizostedion vitreum), a native species with a different life history and feeding habits, collected from the same Mississippi River locations below the St. Paul metropolitan STP. All male and female walleye collected from the effluent channel contained measurable levels of VTG in their blood. Males from that location also exhibited depressed serum T concentrations and elevated serum estradiol-17beta (E2) concentrations compared with males from the Snake River reference site. Males obtained from Mississippi River Navigational Pool #2 (MRP-2), 3-20 miles downstream of the STP also exhibited reduced serum T concentrations, but showed no alterations in E2 concentrations or the presence of VTG in the serum. Females collected at the STP site had greatly elevated serum E2 concentrations, but serum T concentrations were not different from females collected in the Snake River. Our results demonstrate that the St. Paul metropolitan STP continues to release an estrogenic effluent, capable of inducing VTG production and altering normal serum sex steroid concentrations in a commercially valuable, native fish, the walleye. Additional studies will be required to determine whether these observations portend long-term population level effects.

Occurrence of an environmental estrogen (4-nonylphenol) in sewage treatment plant effluent and the aquatic receiving environment

The concentration of an environmental estrogen (4-nonylphenol) was determined in suspended solids and large volume water samples (501) collected from a major sewage treatment plant (STP) and two sites located on the lower Fraser River in British Columbia, Canada. The collection of suspended solids and large volume water samples was conducted concurrently using an in situ continuous flow centrifuge and solid phase extraction. The phase partitioning profile and log Koc of 4-nonylphenol were determined in the STP effluent and the Fraser River receiving environment. The data indicate the following: i) in situ continuous flow centrifugation and solid phase extraction techniques are appropriate methods for the determination of trace levels of 4-nonylphenol in suspended solids and water ii) the highest concentrations of 4-nonylphenol were measured in the STP final effluent iii) 4-nonylphenol showed preferential partitioning to the suspended solid phase in the STP effluent sample and iv) elevated levels of 4-nonylphenol were detected in the Fraser River receiving environment downstream of the STP.

Occurrence of an environmental estrogen (4-nonylphenol) in sewage treatment plant effluent and the aquatic receiving environment

The concentration of an environmental estrogen (4-nonylphenol) was determined in suspended solids and large volume water samples (501) collected from a major sewage treatment plant (STP) and two sites located on the lower Fraser River in British Columbia, Canada. The collection of suspended solids and large volume water samples was conducted concurrently using an in situ continuous flow centrifuge and solid phase extraction. The phase partitioning profile and log Kco of 4-nonylphenol were determined in the STP effluent and the Fraser River receiving environment. The data indicate the following: i) in situ continuous flow centrifugation and solid phase extraction techniques are appropriate methods for the determination of trace levels of 4-nonylphenol in suspended solids and water ii) the highest concentrations of 4-nonylphenol were measured in the STP final effluent iii) 4-nonylphenol showed preferential partitioning to the suspended solid phase in the STP effluent sample and iv) elevated levels of 4-nonylphenol were detected in the Fraser River receiving environment downstream of the STP.

Heavy metals in waters and sediments of Port Phillip Bay, Australia

Despite significant inputs of heavy metals from rivers, creeks and drains and a major sewage treatment plant to Port Phillip Bay, Victoria, Australia, attenuation processes in the water column are such that metal concentrations in the bay waters are comparable to uncontaminated estuaries elsewhere in the world. Sedimentation appeared to be largely responsible for metal removal, with strong correlations between particulate metals and iron in input waters sampled over a storm event. Storm events contributed between 9 (Zn) and 21 (Cr) times the metal loads that enter the bay during low flow conditions. Although metal accumulations in sediments are below guideline concentrations in the major deposition zones, they are highest close to input sources. A unique feature of bay waters was the high concentration of dissolved arsenic (2.8 µg L–1). The source appears to be natural sediment mineralogy, and sediment cores were found to be depleted in arsenic near the sedimentŒwater interface. Overall, the findings suggested that current heavy metal inputs do not represent a threat to the health of the bay.