Major Caldera Collapse Research Articles

Intracaldera explosions and lava emissions during the 2007 caldera collapse of Piton de la Fournaise, La R\xe9union Island

The March–April 2007 Piton de la Fournaise basaltic eruption was the most significant eruption on La Réunion Island in historical times. On 2 April, a fissure opened on the southeastern flank of the volcano. Vigorous fountains fed lavas that rapidly reached the coast. Three days later, on the 5–6 April, major caldera collapse occurred at the summit, affecting the floor and walls of Dolomieu caldera. Monitoring records, primarily webcam images, have been analysed and integrated with geophysical data to reconstruct the chronology of events at the summit during caldera collapse. Those events included progressive subsidence of the former caldera floor, landslides, explosions, lava emissions and steam fumaroles, and lasted until 19 April though diminished greatly in frequency after 7 April. For two days after the main caldera collapse on 5 April, subsidence increments, intracaldera lava emission and explosions were closely associated in time and in location. Abundant steam and wet talus on the caldera walls imply that the shallow hydrothermal system and/or groundwater were exposed by subsidence. The presence of juvenile components in ash deposited at the summit during caldera collapse and the close link between intracaldera lavas and explosions suggest that many explosions were phreatomagmatic. Although caldera collapse was related to magma withdrawal from beneath the summit via the flank vent activity, numerous intracaldera lava emissions indicated that magma was nevertheless present at the summit during caldera collapse. We infer that the lava emissions were fed by an intrusion emplaced at the end of March into the eastern summit region and that the intrusion was being actively recharged during caldera collapse. Caldera collapse involved a complex combination of magma withdrawal and magma replenishment at separate summit reservoirs.

Material failure and caldera collapse: Insights from the 2018 Kilauea eruption

The Failure Forecast Method (FFM) was introduced as an empirical model for forecasting catastrophic material failures related to natural hazards, such as landslides and volcanic eruptions, with mixed success. During the 2018 eruption of Kilauea volcano, Hawaii, the draining of the summit magma reservoir into the Lower East Rift Zone resulted in the formation of a new caldera at the summit. I tested the applicability of the FFM to caldera collapse by analyzing the cyclical earthquake swarms and ground deformation that occurred between 62 sudden major caldera collapse events. The progression of both the cumulative moment release of the cyclical earthquakes and the GNSS displacement show a major change in mid-June. In late May through early June, the progression of the parameters is consistent with strain localization or creep progression related to the development or activation of the ring fault system. From late June until the end of the eruption, parameter progression is roughly steady with initial accelerating increases in cumulative moment and displacement that shift to approximately linear progression. Analysis of repeating earthquake families in the cyclical swarms showed that the behavior of the repeaters was consistent with that of the cyclical swarms as a whole and suggested that each family undergoes its own progression of activation to termination. While the FFM analysis identified the system change in mid-June, it did not demonstrate an ability to forecast collapse events or the end of the eruption.

Lithic-rich and lithic-poor ignimbrites and their basal deposits: Sovana and Sorano formations (Latera caldera, Italy)

Conceptual models explaining the characteristics of ignimbrites and their basal deposits have mainly focused on variations in particle concentration and speed of the parent pyroclastic currents. Here, we focus on the effects of relative proportions of clasts that are well coupled to the carrier gas phase and those that are poorly coupled, i.e., the proportions of fine and/or low-density clasts compared to coarse and/or dense clasts. We document facies and macroscopic clast populations of two ignimbrite-producing eruptive sequences of similar volume and composition, both erupted from Latera caldera (central Italy). The Sovana ignimbrite has 1–15 vol% dense lithic clasts and locally up to 70 vol% in lithic-rich domains. It preserves evidence of emplacement of multiple overlapping flow units with local internal channeling. The ignimbrite is underlain by two basal deposits: (1) a radially distributed, 20–80-cm-thick vitric tuff referred to as BUS (basal unit Sovana) that thins gradually with distance and shows evidence of emplacement by lateral currents; and (2) a fines-depleted, lenticular, massive lapilli tuff, up to 20 cm thick, with abundant lithic clasts. The Sorano ignimbrite, in contrast, has < 1 vol% dense lithic clasts. It contains multiple reverse coarse-tail graded emplacement units, but we observed no internal channeling. In most places, its basal deposits are 20–100 cm of dominantly planar-parallel, 5–10 cm-thick, reverse coarse-tail graded tuff beds. However, in local depressions near the tops of paleocanyons that were filled by Sorano ignimbrite, the basal deposits are up to 2 m thick and are clearly cross stratified. We interpret the different deposit characteristics in terms of recent modeling and experimental results. The Sovana eruption involved major caldera collapse that introduced abundant dense lithic clasts into the erupting mixtures. BUS may have partly resulted from expulsion of a dilute, fine-grained mixture at the site where the pyroclastic fountain(s) impacted the ground, which then propagated outward as a dilute pyroclastic current ahead of the main ignimbrite-producing currents; the expulsion process is promoted by collapsing mixtures rich in poorly coupled clasts. The fines-depleted layer overlying BUS was deposited by rapid sedimentation of abundant dense clasts from the head of the ash-cloud surge, which accompanied the concentrated underflow that deposited the ignimbrite. Spatial and temporal variations in dense-clast abundance, and likely other parameters, during eruption resulted in multiple flow units. The Sorano eruption lacked poorly coupled clasts and did not produce an expulsion-driven current. Its ash-cloud head deposited ash and small pumice lapilli that were able to move in traction carpets prior to being overridden by a concentrated underflow. The overriding ash-cloud bodies locally deposited cross-stratified horizons in depressions high on the canyon walls, before they were inundated as the concentrated underflows filled the canyons with ignimbrite. To summarize, the differences between the ignimbrites and their basal deposits can be largely attributed to the differences in proportions of poorly coupled relative to well-coupled particles in the collapsing eruptive mixtures; the resulting conceptual model simplifies the previous range of interpretations for basal deposits, and is consistent with recent modeling and experimental results.

Multi-temporal airborne structure-from-motion on caldera rim: Hazard, visitor exposure and origins of instabilities at Piton de la Fournaise

Piton de la Fournaise is one of the world’s most active and visited volcanoes. Its summit crater (Cratère Dolomieu), the main tourist attraction, underwent a major caldera collapse in 2007 and its rim is not yet stabilized. In order to assess the caldera rim instability risk for visitors, we followed its structural evolution from 2007 to 2015. Using aerial photogrammetry campaigns, we mapped the unstable sites very precisely, carried out a quantitative analysis of the temporal evolution of these instabilities, and assessed the risks for visitors. Considering the 2008–2015 period, four sites close to the crater’s edge showed significant horizontal ground motion (0.5–2 m), fracture widening (average of 0.3–0.56 m) and large-scale mass wasting volumes (total of 1.8±0.1 × 106 m3). We infer two different processes at work: (1) to the west and north, toppling of the basalt units occurs after periods of fracture widening due to the combined effect of magmatic intrusions and long-term inflation/deflation cycles; (2) to the south and east, parts of the caldera rim slowly slide towards the caldera centre, with significant accelerations during periods of enhanced volcanic activity (in 2008–2010 and 2014–2015). The official observation platform is the most stable zone to overlook the Cratère Dolomieu. By contrast, the most frequently visited area of the rim (northwest) outside the official platform is also the most unstable.

New insights into the initiation and venting of the Bronze-Age eruption of Santorini (Greece), from component analysis

The late-seventeenth century BC Minoan eruption of Santorini discharged 30–60 km3 of magma, and caldera collapse deepened and widened the existing 22 ka caldera. A study of juvenile, cognate, and accidental components in the eruption products provides new constraints on vent development during the five eruptive phases, and on the processes that initiated the eruption. The eruption began with subplinian (phase 0) and plinian (phase 1) phases from a vent on a NE–SW fault line that bisects the volcanic field. During phase 1, the magma fragmentation level dropped from the surface to the level of subvolcanic basement and magmatic intrusions. The fragmentation level shallowed again, and the vent migrated northwards (during phase 2) into the flooded 22 ka caldera. The eruption then became strongly phreatomagmatic and discharged low-temperature ignimbrite containing abundant fragments of post-22 ka, pre-Minoan intracaldera lavas (phase 3). Phase 4 discharged hot, fluidized pyroclastic flows from subaerial vents and constructed three main ignimbrite fans (northwestern, eastern, and southern) around the volcano. The first phase-4 flows were discharged from a vent, or vents, in the northern half of the volcanic field, and laid down lithic-block-rich ignimbrite and lag breccias across much of the NW fan. About a tenth of the lithic debris in these flows was subvolcanic basement. New subaerial vents then opened up, probably across much of the volcanic field, and finer-grained ignimbrite was discharged to form the E and S fans. If major caldera collapse took place during the eruption, it probably occurred during phase 4. Three juvenile components were discharged during the eruption—a volumetrically dominant rhyodacitic pumice and two andesitic components: microphenocryst-rich andesitic pumices and quenched andesitic enclaves. The microphenocryst-rich pumices form a textural, mineralogical, chemical, and thermal continuum with co-erupted hornblende diorite nodules, and together they are interpreted as the contents of a small, variably crystallized intrusion that was fragmented and discharged during the eruption, mostly during phases 0 and 1. The microphenocryst-rich pumices, hornblende diorite, andesitic enclaves, and fragments of pre-Minoan intracaldera andesitic lava together form a chemically distinct suite of Ba-rich, Zr-poor andesites that is unique in the products of Santorini since 530 ka. Once the Minoan magma reservoir was primed for eruption by recharge-generated pressurization, the rhyodacite moved upwards by exploiting the plane of weakness offered by the pre-existing andesite–diorite intrusion, dragging some of the crystal-rich contents of the intrusion with it.

Evolution of silicic magmas in the Kos-Nisyros volcanic center, Greece: a petrological cycle associated with caldera collapse

Multiple eruptions of silicic magma (dacite and rhyolites) occurred over the last ~3 My in the Kos-Nisyros volcanic center (eastern Aegean sea). During this period, magmas have changed from hornblende-biotite-rich units with low eruption temperatures (≤750–800°C; Kefalos and Kos dacites and rhyolites) to hotter, pyroxene-bearing units (>800–850°C; Nisyros rhyodacites) and are transitioning back to cooler magmas (Yali rhyolites). New whole-rock compositions, mineral chemistry, and zircon Hf isotopes show that these three types of silicic magmas followed the same differentiation trend: they all evolved by crystal fractionation and minor crustal assimilation (AFC) from parents with intermediate compositions characterized by high Sr/Y and low Nb content, following a wet, high oxygen fugacity liquid line of descent typical of subduction zones. As the transition between the Kos-Kefalos and Nisyros-type magmas occurred immediately and abruptly after the major caldera collapse in the area (the 161 ka Kos Plateau Tuff; KPT), we suggest that the efficient emptying of the magma chamber during the KPT drew out most of the eruptible, volatile-charged magma and partly solidified the unerupted mush zone in the upper crust due to rapid unloading, decompression, and coincident crystallization. Subsequently, the system reestablished a shallow silicic production zone from more mafic parents, recharged from the mid to lower crust. The first silicic eruptions evolving from these parents after the caldera collapse (Nisyros units) were hotter (up to >100°C) than the caldera-forming event and erupted from reservoirs characterized by different mineral proportions (more plagioclase and less amphibole). We interpret such a change as a reflection of slightly drier conditions in the magmatic column after the caldera collapse due to the decompression event. With time, the upper crustal intermediate mush progressively transitioned into the cold-wet state that prevailed during the Kefalos-Kos stage. The recent eruptions of the high-SiO2 rhyolite on Yali Island, which are low temperature and hydrous phases (sanidine, quartz, biotite), suggest that another large, potentially explosive magma chamber is presently building under the Kos-Nisyros volcanic center.

Geological history and potential hazards of the late-Pleistocene to Recent Plat Pays volcanic complex, Dominica, Lesser Antilles

During 1998–2000, the island of Dominica in the Lesser Antilles experienced a major volcanic earthquake swarm spatially associated with volcanic centres in the south of the island. This swarm provided the motivation for a major re-assessment of geologic history and volcanic hazards in this region. This has led to a re-interpretation of the south-western-most corner of the island as a large volcanic complex, termed the Plat Pays volcanic complex, which has exhibited a wide range of past eruptive activity and which, in the Quaternary, experienced a major caldera collapse triggered by a voluminous pyroclastic eruption. Stratigraphy and new 14C age determinations reveal a complicated history of development. The earliest activity is represented by the formation of the Plat Pays stratovolcano and associated parasitic domes. A major explosive eruption ~ 39,000 years B.P. produced the Grand Bay ignimbrite and triggered a major caldera collapse of the summit and south-western flank of the Plat Pays stratovolcano. Following the major eruption, re-injection of Plat Pays magma resulted in the extrusion of approximately 12 lava domes both within and outside the resulting depression. Caldera collapse was followed by at least one catastrophic flank collapse, but it is unclear whether or not this was triggered by caldera formation. The only on-shore evidence of flank collapse is the breach of the caldera rim and truncation of post-caldera deposits emplaced on or near the caldera rim; we find no evidence of on-shore large-magnitude rock avalanche deposits within the stratigraphic framework of the Plat Pays volcanic complex. Frequent seismic swarms of volcanic earthquakes and vigorous geothermal activity indicate that south Dominica is still underlain by an active magma reservoir system. Our new geological observations, combined with an interpretation of recent seismic swarm activity, suggest that an eruption (probably dome-forming) from the Plat Pays volcanic complex is probable within the next 100 years.

Timing of magma extraction during the Campanian Ignimbrite eruption (Campi Flegrei Caldera)

A core drilled within the northern part of the city of Napoli has offered the unique opportunity to observe in one single sequence the superposition of the four pyroclastic flow units emplaced during the Campanian Ignimbrite (CI) eruption. Such a stratigraphic succession has never been encountered before in natural or in man made exposures. Therefore the CI sequence was reconstructed only on the basis of stratigraphic correlations and compositional data (in literature). The occurrence of four superposed CI flows, together with all the data available (in literature) allowed us to better constrain the chemical stratigraphy of the deposit and the compositional structure of the CI magma chamber. The CI magma chamber includes two cogenetic magma layers, separated by a compositional gap. The upper magma layer was contaminated by interaction with radiogenic fluids. The two magma layers were extruded either individually or simultaneously during the course of the eruption. In the latter case they produced a hybrid magma. But no evidence of input of new geochemically and isotopically distinct magma batches just prior or during the eruption has been found. Comparison with the exposed CI deposits has permitted reconstruction of variable eruption phases and related magma withdrawal and caldera collapse episodes. The eruption was likely to have began with phreatomagmatic explosions followed by the formation of a sustained plinian eruption column fed by the simultaneous extraction from both magma layers. Towards the end of this phase the upward migration of the fragmentation surface and the decrease in magma eruption rate and/or activation of fractures formed an unstable pulsating column that was fed only by the most-evolved magma layer. This plinian phase was followed by the collapse of the eruption column and the beginning of caldera formation. At this stage expanded pyroclastic flows fed by the upper magma layer in the chamber generated. During the following major caldera collapse episode, the maximum mass discharge rate was reached and both magma layers were tapped, generating expanded pyroclastic flows. Towards the end of the eruption, only the deeper and less differentiated magma layer was tapped producing more concentrated pyroclastic flows that traveled short distances.

Distribution of magma beneath the Toba caldera complex, north Sumatra, Indonesia, constrained by three‐dimensional P wave velocities, seismicity, and gravity data

We estimate the one‐ and three‐dimensional P wave velocity structure beneath the Toba caldera complex, a 30 × 100 km topographic depression in North Sumatra, using arrival time data of local earthquakes recorded by a 40‐station seismic network that operated for 4 months. Inversions reveal the presence of P velocities up to 37% below normal that likely map the distribution of magma within this subduction‐related volcanic system, considered the world's largest. In the upper 10 km of crust the largest low‐velocity region underlies the southern two thirds of the depression and coincides with a gravity low centered over the resurgent dome. A smaller volume of low velocities is observed in the upper crust under the north end of the depression. Separating the two regions is a zone of locally high velocities, indicating that the shallow, subcaldera magma system is composed of two separate reservoirs, not a single one that extends the entire length of the caldera complex. Above each low‐velocity region is a postcollapse volcano that erupted mostly mafic lavas after the last major caldera collapse ∼74 kyr ago. A low‐velocity column below one of these volcanoes can be traced into the uppermost mantle and corresponds with a planar distribution of low‐frequency earthquakes in the 20‐ to 40‐km‐depth range. The low‐frequency earthquakes apparently record the migration of melt in the mafic roots of this large‐volume, crustal magma system.

Reconstruction of a major caldera-forming eruption from pyroclastic deposit characteristics: Kos Plateau Tuff, eastern Aegean Sea

The 161 ka explosive eruption of the Kos Plateau Tuff (KPT) ejected a minimum of 60 km 3 of rhyolitic magma, a minor amount of andesitic magma and incorporated more than 3 km 3 of vent- and conduit-derived lithic debris. The source formed a caldera south of Kos, in the Aegean Sea, Greece. Textural and lithofacies characteristics of the KPT units are used to infer eruption dynamics and magma chamber processes, including the timing for the onset of catastrophic caldera collapse. The KPT consists of six units: (A) phreatoplinian fallout at the base; (B, C) stratified pyroclastic-density-current deposits; (D, E) volumetrically dominant, massive, non-welded ignimbrites; and (F) stratified pyroclastic-density-current deposits and ash fallout at the top. The ignimbrite units show increases in mass, grain size, abundance of vent- and conduit-derived lithic clasts, and runout of the pyroclastic density currents from source. Ignimbrite formation also corresponds to a change from phreatomagmatic to dry explosive activity. Textural and lithofacies characteristics of the KPT imply that the mass flux (i.e. eruption intensity) increased to the climax when major caldera collapse was initiated and the most voluminous, widespread, lithic-rich and coarsest ignimbrite was produced, followed by a waning period. During the eruption climax, deep basement lithic clasts were ejected, along with andesitic pumice and variably melted and vesiculated co-magmatic granitoid clasts from the magma chamber. Stratigraphic variations in pumice vesicularity and crystal content, provide evidence for variations in the distribution of crystal components and a subsidiary andesitic magma within the KPT magma chamber. The eruption climax culminated in tapping more coarsely crystal-rich magma. Increases in mass flux during the waxing phase is consistent with theoretical models for moderate-volume explosive eruptions that lead to caldera collapse.

Local seismicity following the 1998 eruption of Axial Volcano

A local network of seven ocean bottom hydrophones was deployed on Axial volcano 14 days after the onset of seismic activity from the January 1998 diking/eruption episode. Eighty‐one locatable microearthquakes were observed during a 166 day deployment. The first group of events, observed immediately after the eruption, cluster around the rim of the central caldera. These events are believed to be aftershocks from the major caldera collapse at the beginning of the diking event. The second group of events, observed 2–5 months after the eruption, are primarily located on a line striking 125° from the caldera onto the southeast shoulder of the volcano, with a few events extending into Helium basin to the north. These events are interpreted to result from horizontal shear associated with the CoAxial and Vance ridge segment offset, or extension across the Juan de Fuca/Pacific plate boundary underlying the eastern flank of Axial volcano.