Major Agro-ecological Zones Research Articles

Leveraging genetic resource diversity and identification of trait-enriched superior genotypes for accelerated improvement in linseed (Linum usitatissimum L.)

Linseed or flaxseed, native to the Indian subcontinent, had undergone domestication, edaphic selection and evolutionary processes that may have resulted in huge genetic variability in Indian genotypes. To understand the hitherto unexplored genetic diversity for sustainable flaxseed production amid challenges of climate fluctuation and identify trait-specific high-yielding genotypes, 2576 unique linseed accessions were comprehensively evaluated for 36 traits for up to six environments representing two major agroecological zones in India. A wide range of variability was recorded for days to initiation of flowering (42.86–114.99), plant height (43.31–122.88 cm), capsules/plant (64.62–375.87), seed size (6.06–14.44 cm2), thousand seed weight (2.80–11.86 g), seed yield (2.93–17.28 g/plant), oil content (30.14–45.96%) and fatty acid profile especially the key constituent omega-3 fatty acid (25.4–65.88%). Most of the traits such as plant height, flowering time, seed yield, seed and capsule size showed a high or moderately high level of variance coupled with high broad sense heritability indicating precise capturing of less heritable quantitative traits. The infraspecific classification of the tested collection revealed the seed/oil type (2498 accessions) as the dominant morphotype over dual-purpose/fiber flax (78 accessions) in the conserved collection. Correlation analysis indicated a significant positive association between flowering time, plant height, days to maturity and oil content. Trait-specific superior genotypes for earliness (50% flowering in < 60 days, maturity in < 122 days), bold seeds with high thousand seed weight (> 11 g), capsules/plant (> 350), oil content (> 45%) and fatty acid composition (> 65% alpha-linolenic acid) were identified to aid genetic improvement of linseed and to broaden the narrow genetic base.

Integrating meta-analysis and experts’ knowledge for prioritizing climate-smart agricultural practices in Ethiopian

Various climate-smart agricultural (CSA) practices are being advocated in different agroecological zones of Ethiopia to enhance the sustainability, resilience, and productivity of the agricultural sector in response to climate change. Prioritizing and packaging these CSA practices are essential to amplify the impact of climate change mitigation efforts. By strategically selecting and prioritizing these practices and technologies, resources can be allocated effectively to activities with the highest potential for reducing greenhouse gas emissions, bolstering resilience, and fostering sustainable development. However, identifying and prioritizing climate-smart practices that cater to the needs of vulnerable farmers and are tailored to specific local contexts remains challenging, often hindered by subjective assessments and limited awareness. The objective of this paper was to enhance the precision and objectivity of prioritizing CSA practices by leveraging a combination of research findings and expert knowledge. The steps included the following: i) a CSA prioritization assessment framework was used to identify and prioritize CSA practices across various agro-ecologies based on the CSA pillars (productivity, adaptation, and mitigation); ii), a meta-analysis approach was employed to determine the effect size of various CSA practices on the three pillars of CSA practices; iii), the effect size values were rescaled and ranked based on effect size categories; and iv), correlation was performed to assess the relationship between the two approaches, and finally, average values were taken to integrate and determine the final rank of CSA practices. Overall, we found out that there were weak correlations between the ranks of the two approaches, resulted in a mismatch between the ranks of CSA practices by experts and meta-analysis results. Using the meta-analysis approach, only 35% of the CSA practices were equally ranked by both approaches, 40% of the CSA practices were more likely ranked by experts, while 25% of the CSA practices were more likely ranked by the meta-analysis approach. This implies that experts overestimated the effect of various CSA practices on various indicators of productivity, soil loss, and run-off and soil organic matter. Integrating the ranks of the two approaches helped to target CSA practices across various agro-ecological zones. According to the combined ranking, several CSA practices were targeted to six major agro-ecological zones in the country. These various CSA practices increase productivity, enhance adaptation, and sequester carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Based on the availability of these CSA practices, it is possible to package various combinations of these practices.

Identification and prioritization of context-specific climate smart agricultural (CSA) practices in Ethiopia: a framework approach

Ethiopia’s diverse agroecological zones showcase a variety of Climate Smart Agricultural (CSA) Practices, yet the documentation and prioritization of best-bet practices have been lacking. To address this gap, this study utilized the Climate Change, Agriculture, and Food Security (CCAFS)-CSA Prioritization framework. This approach was deployed across nine key agro-ecologies in Ethiopia to identify and prioritize CSA practices based on the three pillars of CSA and gender-equity considerations. By employing this participatory framework, this study successfully identified and prioritized over 200 Climate Smart Agricultural (CSA) practices within Ethiopia’s nine major agroecological zones. These practices were segmented into four main systems: crop management (40 practices), livestock management (41 practices), soil fertility management (40 practices), erosion control and water management (41 practices), and forest and agroforestry (40 practices). Notably, the results highlighted the significance of CSA practices linked to agroforestry/forestry management, rangeland/forage enhancement, exclosure strategies, and water management in addressing the goals associated with the three pillars (productivity, adaptation, mitigation) of CSA practices simultaneously. The findings also revealed that the majority of Climate Smart Agricultural (CSA) practices focused on improving productivity and enhancing adaptation to climate change. Additionally, the results demonstrated that trade-offs exist among the three pillars of CSA, emphasizing the need for integration with other practices to enhance complementarity and achieve all pillars simultaneously. Overall, this study underscores the importance of combining CSA practices of various categories to maximize their effectiveness and impact in sustainable agriculture.

Spatiotemporal analysis of rainfall and temperature variability and trends for climate resilient maize farming system in major agroecology zones of northwest Ethiopia

ABSTRACTSpatiotemporal studies of the annual and seasonal climate variability and trend on an agroecological spatial scale for establishing a climate-resilient maize farming system have not yet been conducted in Ethiopia. The study was carried out in three major agroecological zones in northwest Ethiopia using climate data from 1987 to 2018. The coefficient of variation (CV), precipitation concertation index (PCI), and rainfall anomaly index (RAI) were used to analyze the variability of rainfall. The Mann-Kendall test and Sen’s slope estimator were also applied to estimate trends and slopes of changes in rainfall and temperature. High-significance warming trends in the maximum and minimum temperatures were shown in the highland and lowland agroecology zones, respectively. Rainfall has also demonstrated a maximum declining trend throughout the keremt season in the highland agroecology zone. However, rainfall distribution has become more unpredictable in the Bega and Belg seasons. Climate-resilient maize agronomic activities have been determined by analyzing the onset and cessation dates and the length of the growth period (LGP). The rainy season begins between May 8 and June 3 and finishes between October 26 and November 16. The length of the growth period (LGP) during the rainy season ranges from 94 to 229 days.

Response of oil producing camelina (Camelina sativa L.) crop to different agroecology and rate of NP fertilization

Camelina (Camelina sativa L.) is an industrial crop, which has been cultivated for centuries as an oilseed crop for human food, however, the production and its importance were not well known in Ethiopia. The current research was conducted to identify potential agroecology and rate of NP (nitrogen and phosphorous) fertilizer for the high yield production of camelina crop. Two major agroecological zones, namely highland (moist dega) and midland (moist weyna-dega) agroecologies, were tested. The experiments in both agroecology were conducted in RCBD design with similar treatments. The treatments were (T1 = 0 kg N ha−1, 0 kg P ha−1), (T2 = 30 kg N ha−1, 10 kg P ha−1), (T3 = 60 kg N ha−1, 20 kg P ha−1), (T4 = 90 kg N ha−1, 30 kg P ha−1), (T5 = 120 kg N ha−1, 40 kg P ha−1) and (T6 = 150 kg N ha−1, 50 kg P ha−1). Significant (P &lt; 0.05) differences were observed among the fertilizer treatments. Accordingly, in highland, the highest seed weight (8.37 g plant−1) and grain yield (1814.54 kg ha−1) were recorded from T5, while in midland, the highest seed weight (3.89 g plant−1) and grain yield (843.97 kg ha−1) were recorded from T6. The highest aboveground biomass (32.08, 18.49 g plant−1) and plant height (102.34, 86.33 cm) were recorded from T6 in highland and midland agroecology, respectively. According to the Pearson’s correlation analysis, significant (P &lt; 0.001) positive correlation was observed between the plant height, seed weight, aboveground biomass and grain yield. In general, highland agroecology showed 115%, 18.53%, 114.95% and 73.53% increase in grain yield, plant height, seed weight, and aboveground biomass, respectively as compared to midland agroecology.

An integrative approach based on crop modeling and geospatial and statistical analysis to quantify and explain the maize (Zea mays) yield gap in Ghana

In Ghana, maize (Zea mays) is a crop crucial to achieving food and nutrition security. Maize consumption has increased exponentially over the past decades and contributes to 25% of the caloric consumption in the country. In order to assist in decision-making and guide investment in sustainable intensification of maize production, this study set out to identify the determinants of yield and to arrive at potential interventions for closing the maize yield gap. These were quantified using analytical approaches that combine a light use efficiency crop model (LINTUL-1) with statistical and geospatial analyses. Legacy data, auxiliary covariables, and maize fertilizer trials on eight experimental stations in Ghana were used in this study. Overall, the maize yield gap across the stations and trial treatments ranged from 17% to 98%. The variation in yield gap within a single station indicates a significant scope for closing the yield gap through site-specific nutrient management. Multiple linear regression models that explained 81% of the variability in maize yield gap identified soil organic matter, soil water-holding capacity, root zone depth, rainfall, sulfur fertilizer, and nitrogen fertilizer, in that order of importance, as the major determinants for closing the yield gap in the major agroecological zones of Ghana. The yield gap decreased by 1.4 t ha-1 with a 1% increase in soil organic matter. A 1 mm increase of the soil water-holding capacity reduced the yield gap by 1.06 t ha-1, while an increase in pH and in the application of potassium fertilizer widened the gap. These results suggest that both soil physical and chemical properties, together with weather data, should be taken into consideration to arrive at site-specific fertilizer recommendation and other agronomic practices.

Phosphorus supply chain for sustainable food production will have mitigated environmental pressure with region-specific phosphorus management

Achieving synergy between food security and phosphorus (P) resource sustainability has been a major challenge for sustainable agriculture. However, addressing this challenge by linking region-specific and whole-process P management strategies has not been investigated. In this study, data collected from field experiments throughout China's major agroecological zones were used to explore potential paths to achieving P resource sustainability without compromising crop production. High P fertilizer use for crop production in China was accompanied by high P-related environmental pressure that was highly spatially heterogeneous, with hotspots in North China. In addition, crop production in the P supply chain was responsible for 94.2% and 57.2% of water eutrophication and global warming potentials. P consumption using integrated strategies that consider the plant–soil continuum and P supply chain characteristics can reduce P consumption by 42.5% without compromising crop production. Providing a valuable reference for farmers and policymakers seeking solutions to achieve sustainable agriculture.

Food Resources in The Gambia: Nutrition and Herbal Medicine

The Gambia, 'The smiling Coast' of Africa, is a strip of low lying country located between latitudes 13o 00’ and 13o 50’ N and longitudes 16o 50’ and 13o 45’ W, with a total land boundary of 740 km, and dense population of 1,857,181. The two distinct climates are the rainy and dry seasons. The dry season which lasts from October till May is characterized by dry dusty wind; while the wet season lasts from June till early October, with total annual rainfall that varies from the coastline inwards. Based on the rainfall pattern, the three major agroecological zones include Sahelian, Sudan-Sahelian and Sudan-Guinean which favour the cultivation of some cash crops, food crops, and herbal plants. Foods, in the form of liquid or solid, are sources of nutrition and medicine for good health; malnutrition, or poison. Foods and nutrition are essential for maintaining good health and preventing disease. Not only is malnutrition prevalent in The Gambia, but most of the populace also seemed unaware of the content, quality, composition, the nutritive, or medicinal value of the foods consumed. In this review, the chemical, medicinal, and nutritive values of some commonly consumed or traditional foods and drinks and the names of some herbal plants and their uses in The Gambia are reported.

Whole-genome resequencing reveals signature of local adaptation and divergence in wild soybean.

Global climate change has threatened world crop production and food security. Decoding the adaptive genetic basis of wild relatives provides an invaluable genomic resource for climate-smart crop breedinG.Here, we performed whole-genome sequencing of 185 diverse wild soybean (Glycine soja) accessions collected from three major agro-ecological zones in China to parse the genomic basis of local adaptation in wild soybean. The population genomic diversity pattern exhibited clear agro-ecological zone-based population structure, and multiple environmental factors were observed to contribute to the genetic divergence. Demographic analysis shows that wild soybeans from the three ecological zones diverged about 1 × 105years ago, and then the effective population sizes have undergone different degrees of expansions. Genome-environment association identified multiple genes involved in the local adaptation, such as flowering time and temperature-related genes. A locus containing two adjacent MADS-box transcription factors on chromosome 19 was identified for multiple environmental factors, and it experienced positive selection that enables the adaptation to high-latitude environment. This study provides insights into the genetic mechanism of ecological adaptation in wild soybean that may facilitate climate-resilient soybean breeding.

Drivers of vulnerability to climate change and adaptive responses of forest-edge farming households in major agro-ecological zones of Nigeria

Drivers of vulnerability to climate change and adaptive responses of forest-edge farming households in major agro-ecological zones of Nigeria

Repeated cuttings under farmer management effect on growth and yield performance of Pennisetum glaucifolium varieties in major agro-ecological zones of Ethiopia

Feed supply, in terms of energy and protein, has been not sufficient to feed the Ethiopian livestock population. On farm trials of repeated cuttings assessing growth and dry matter yield of Desho (Pennisetum glaucifoilum) varieties was undertaken in trials run in different agro-ecologies of Southwestern Ethiopia during 2019 and 2020. Field trials of three varieties (Areka-DZF#590, Kulumsa-DZF#592, and Kindokoisha-DZF #589) established at six planting sites with an altitude variation of 832–1797 m above sea level were laid out in a randomized complete block design with three replications. Four cuttings were taken, in June, August, October and December 2020, after an establishment period of 16 months. Plant height, leaf morphology (leaf length, leaf width, leaf number per plant), and tiller number per plant, leaf to stem ratio, dry matter yield and farmers perception were measured to identify the best adapted and yielding Desho variety. There was significant variation (P < 0.01) in dry matter yield and plant height recorded due to variety, harvesting frequency, agro-ecological zone and management variation, and their interaction in the trial. Leaf morphology varied across agro-ecological zones and farms in the trial. The variety Kulumsa-DZF#592 performed the best across both agro-ecological zones and farms. The highest dry matter yield recorded at the interaction between variety, harvesting frequency, agro-ecological zone and trial farm, was 39.70 t/ha, with a mean value of 22.56 t/ha. Scaling up of the varieties in the experimental area and similar agro-ecologies is recommended for the forages contribution to filling the energy feed gap in farming system of Southwestern Ethiopia. Assessing the productivity of the varieties under irrigation after each cut and under intensive management could be warranted for the future.

The use of mobile phones and the heterogeneity of banana farmers in Rwanda

Information and communications technologies (ICTs) play a key role in improving agricultural production, enhancing socio-ecological resilience, and mitigating rural poverty. However, the use of ICTs for agricultural development among smallholder farmers, especially in the least developed countries, still lags behind. It is therefore critical to understand distinct attitudes among heterogeneous smallholder farmers that determine use of ICTs, such as mobile phones. Moreover, data-driven empirical studies on the use of mobile phones in smallholder settings are still scarce. We bridge this knowledge gap by evaluating the link between the use of mobile phones and various farming types of smallholder farmers in Rwanda. Using the principal component and cluster analysis, we analyzed 690 banana farming households across eight of the 10 major agro-ecological zones of Rwanda and developed a typology of banana farms. We identified three distinct farm types based on a combination of various farmer characteristics and farm operations and endowments, namely the beer banana, livestock-based, and the cooking banana farm types. These farm types clearly differ in terms of ownership and use of both basic and smart mobile devices. Farmers in the cooking banana farm type are far more likely to own and use smart mobile phones than in other types. Regression results further indicated that farm type, gender, and education have significant correlations with the perceived usefulness of mobile phones in agriculture. Major barriers to using ICT-based agricultural services were 1) low awareness of the existence of ICT services, 2) limited availability of ICT services, 3) lack of technical know-how, 4) relatively high prices of ICT devices, and 5) low levels of ICT literacy. This empirical study provides strategically important insights for the transition to digital agriculture in the context of smallholder farming systems.

Repeated Cuttings Under Farmer Management Effect on Growth and Yield Performance of &lt;i&gt;Pennisetum Glaucifolium&lt;/i&gt; Varieties in Major Agro-Ecological Zones of Ethiopia

Repeated Cuttings Under Farmer Management Effect on Growth and Yield Performance of &lt;i&gt;Pennisetum Glaucifolium&lt;/i&gt; Varieties in Major Agro-Ecological Zones of Ethiopia

Farmers Utilization of Climate Change Adaptation Strategies Across Selected Agro-Ecological Zones in Nigeria

This study examined farmers’ level of use of climate change adaptation strategies across selected agro-ecological zones in Nigeria. Edo and Ondo States were selected for the study with three major agro-ecological zones. A multi-stage sampling procedure was used. The correlation analysis revealed a significant relationship between year of education and level of use of adaptation strategies (r = 0.15, P = 0.02). The result of Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) revealed that significant differences existed in most of the adaptation strategies employed except planting different varieties (F = 1.672, P = 0.190), intercropping (F = 0.646, P = 0.525), crop rotation (F = 2.436, P = 0.090) and migration to different sites (F = 0.661, P = 0.517). The study recommended that the issue of climate change should not be taken lightly by all stakeholders as its effect differs among various agro-ecological zones.

Learning from the grassroots: The case for the consideration of community-based agrarian and food security reforms in South Africa

Studies of projected agro-climatic variability on the productivity of small-holding farming livelihoods have been evaluated by indirect methods using simulation models on country or regional basis but few have been done at the community level. This study explores direct observation of the impact of soil and climate factors on crop and livestock livelihood systems in the three major agro-ecological zones of the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. It also analyzed their influence on small farmers’ choices of agrarian livelihood activities and the lessons learned for the suitability of agro-ecologically integrated agriculture as part of agrarian and food security reforms needed among small farming households in rural communities of South Africa. The impact of soil and rainfall on the crop and livestock livelihood choices of small-holders in the three major agro-ecological zones were explored. A cross-sectional survey was carried out among 223 small-holding farming households during the harvesting period of rain-fed farming season. Data on household livelihood activities were processed in monetary terms and subjected to gross margin and cost/benefit analysis. Geographic information system (GIS) mapping and statistical analysis were used to determine the association of small-holder maize revenue with agro-climatic variation. The results indicated that crop-based activities performed better in the Grassland zone, while livestock activities performed better in the Savanna zone. Small farms in the Karoo can only productively engage in livestock production. The results also showed that farming activities that combined more vegetable crops yielded greater profits than other field crops. Furthermore, the results indicate that the mixed cropping method remains one of the strategies for breaking-even and risk-bearing effort used by the small-holder farmers considering its cost-sharing benefits. Geographical information system (GIS) mapping further indicates that small-holders’ farming activity was not only affected by soil-climatic factors but by their management skills as well. We recommend agro-ecologically adapted policies and incentives for agriculture-based livelihood activities and intensified mixing of cropping systems among the small-holder farming households in the study area.

On-farm diversity of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) varieties in east Hararghe Zone, Eastern Ethiopia

Common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is an important source of food and income. However, its on-farm diversity and conservation by smallholder farmers is not known in the east Hararghe Zone of eastern Ethiopia. Thus, field survey was conducted from November 2018 to February 2019 to assess the on-farm diversity, cropping system and the role of gender in production and management of common bean varieties. Common bean producing districts were selected purposively whereas sub-districts (kebeles) were selected randomly. Three kebeles from each of the two major agro-ecological zones, two key informants and twelve general informants from each kebele were selected to constitute a total of 84 informants. The selection of general informants was stratified based on gender and wealth status. Structured interview guide was used to interview general informants whereas semi-structured interview guide was used to interview key informants. Descriptive and inferential statistical analyses were conducted in R (version 3.5.2). Seven farmers’ varieties of common bean were identified and their diversity was higher in tepid, moist mid highlands (M3) whereas cropped area (ha) was significantly (p < 0.05) higher in tepid sub-humid highlands (SH3) agro-ecology. Most activities of common bean were undertaken by male adults. Insect pests were the prominent constraints of common bean production. Farmers’ varieties were used as food and feed, and soil fertility management. Therefore, their on-farm and ex situ conservation, maintenance of endangered varieties, and shortage of cropping land due to chat plantation need special concern to promote their cultivation.

Quantity-to-intensity (Q/I) relationships can efficiently characterize intensively cultivated agricultural soils in Bangladesh for better potassium supplying capacity

Aim of the study: Firstly, to evaluate the K dynamics of soils through a quantity-intensity isotherm study; and secondly, to characterize the soils on the basis of quantity-intensity (Q/I) parameters.Area of study: Gazipur, BangladeshMaterial and methods: Eleven soils collected from major agro-ecological zones in Bangladesh were evaluated for their varying K dynamics parameters, and K supplying capacities of these soils were described.Main results: The Q/I plot showed both linear and polynomial relationships for soils in the study. The eleven soils had labile K ranging from 0.022 in Palashbari clay loam to 1.35 cmol kg-1 in Barisal clay. The latter soil had the highest equilibrium K activity ratio (0.003 mol L-1)1/2 and potential buffering capacity (PBC) (460.4 (cmol kg-1) (mol L-1)1/2). The PBC of soils for non-exchangeable pool (PBCne) was much higher than that of exchangeable pool (PBCe) in most soils. The largest amount of PBCne and PBCe occurred in Barisal clay, Gopalpur clay, Jhalokathi clay and Nachol loam which had a higher K desorption rate than all the other soils. The equilibrium exchangeable K, critical exchangeable K and equilibrium solution K of the soils varied widely (0.0006-0.035, 0.06-0.61 and 0.06-0.604 cmol kg-1, respectively). The added K was converted almost equally for the respective soils, with specific reference to the respective exchangeable and non-exchangeable pool for Barisal clay and Nachol loam.Research highlights: All the studied parameters revealed wide variations among the soils. The linear and polynomial relationships for soils can efficiently characterize intensively cultivated soils in Bangladesh.

Adaptation of Crop Diversification to Climatic Risks and Agro-ecological Zone: Case of Under-resourced Farmers in Eastern Cape, South Africa

ABSTRACT Crop diversification can reduce the extent of losses from climate change and climate risks. This paper explains the state of crop diversification in the study area and identify significant exploitable benefits from the practise. The study employed survey data from farmers in major agro-ecological zones of the Eastern Cape Province, namely Grassland, Savannah and Karoo. Data on crop enterprises, input and output variables were processed in monetary terms and subjected to gross margin analysis. A correlation analysis was applied to examine the sensitivity of farm inputs, outputs and profitability/loss to different crop mixes and agro-climatic variation. Study findings revealed that crop-based enterprise combinations of farmers vary across agro-ecological zones. Farmers choose crops that reduces the risk of emerging climate related losses, input costs and increase output and/or revenue. The study recommends experimental research that details yield benefits and losses in responses to both biotic, abiotic factors and specific crop combinations.

Implications of the Thermodynamic Response of Soil Mineralization, Respiration, and Nitrification on Soil Organic Matter Retention.

Considerable research has shown that modifications in global temperature regimes can lead to changes in the interactions between soil respiration and the sequestration of C and N into soil organic matter (SOM). We hypothesized that despite the interconnected nature of respiration, net N mineralization, and nitrification processes, there would be differences in their thermodynamic responses that would affect the composition of inorganic soil N and the potential for retention of N in SOM. To test this hypothesis, soil respiration, N mineralization and nitrification responses were evaluated during constant temperature incubations at seven temperatures (4–42°C) in tilled and no-till soils from two major agroecological zones in Oregon; Willamette Valley, and Pendleton located in the Columbia River Basin. We observed (1) significant thermodynamic differences between the three processes in all soils, (2) a distinctly different thermodynamic profile in Willamette vs. Pendleton, and (3) a dynamic response of Topt (optimal temperature for activity), and Tsmax (temperature of greatest rate response to temperature), and temperature sensitivity (Δ) over the incubation time course, resulting in shifts in the thermodynamic profiles that could not be adequately explained by changes in process rates. We found that differences in contributions of ammonia oxidizing archaea and bacteria to nitrification activity across temperature helped to explain the thermodynamic differences of this process between Willamette and Pendleton soils. A two-pool model of SOM utilization demonstrated that the dynamic thermodynamic response of respiration in the soils was due to shifts in utilization of labile and less-labile pools of C; and that the respiration response by Pendleton soils was more dependent upon contributions from the less-labile C pool resulting in higher Topt and Tsmax than Willamette soils. Interestingly, modeling of N mineralization using the two-pool model suggested that only the less-labile pool of SOM was contributing to N mineralization at most temperatures in all soils. The difference in labile and less-labile SOM pool utilization between respiration and N mineralization may suggest that these processes may not be as interconnected as previously thought.

The rapid rise of agricultural mechanization in Myanmar

The past decade has seen a resurgence of interest in the role of mechanization in agricultural development. This literature has given rise to debates over the design of institutions and policies to facilitate accelerated mechanization, the role of outsourcing services in overcoming problems of access to machinery, and questions regarding the future of smallholder agriculture. We contribute to these debates using two pairs of complementary demand side (farm household) and supply side (agricultural machinery retailer) surveys, implemented in Myanmar in 2016 and 2017 across two major agro-ecological zones. Our analysis provides evidence that extremely rapid agricultural mechanization took place during the period of political and economic reforms from 2011 to 2020. In both zones surveyed, use of machinery for land preparation, harvesting, and threshing was close to scale-neutral due to a dynamic outsourcing services market. Rather than representing a single transformational change, mechanization’s broad appeal to farm households results from an accumulation of incremental, overlapping, complementary advantages. These include labor savings, reduced drudgery, convenience, increased speed and timeliness of operations, improved ability to manage weather-related risks, and reduced loss of grain during harvesting. We provide examples of policies on trade, finance, and land tenure that contributed to this transformation with practical implications for ongoing policy debates on mechanization in other countries, and suggest some generalizable lessons.