Maintenance Of Aggression Research Articles

The Sanctuary Model: A Trauma-Responsive Environmental Model for Secure Residential Facilities Within the Juvenile Justice System

Exposure to trauma is considered a critical factor in explaining the onset and maintenance of youth aggression. Integrating trauma-responsive practices into the operations of youth-serving systems improves incarcerated youths’ adaptive functioning and ability to succeed when back in society and serves as an opportunity to reduce the likelihood of future aggression. The Sanctuary Model is an approach to organizational culture change based on the structural development of processes that facilitate trauma-responsiveness within a therapeutic community environment. The Colorado Division of Youth Services adopted the Sanctuary Model as part of the primary foundational organizational model of care in 2014. This conceptual article first describes the Sanctuary Model and discusses its implementation using Bowen and Murshid’s (2016) social justice and trauma-informed social policy framework. The article provides an analysis that leads to seven recommendations that will assist organizational leaders in justifying the model at every stage of implementation, including the ongoing sustainability of the practices.

Variables involved in the acquisition and maintenance of racial aggression and its victims' reactions.

This study aimed to investigate how behavior analysis can contribute to the understanding of some variables and processes involved in the acquisition and maintenance of racial aggressors' behaviors, as well as the victims' reactions. We describe how the concepts of rule-governed behavior and motivating operations may be involved in institutional racism: Individuals belonging to ethnic groups who hold the social administration in a context may keep important reinforcers available for their own group, while other racial groups may have their access to those reinforcers hindered. For these privileges to be perpetuated, the ruling group can arrange contingencies that reinforce the behavior of following certain rules that contribute to the maintenance of relevant reinforcers for the ruling group and exclusion of Black individuals and other people of color. For those underrepresented groups, motivating operations can be manipulated and reinforcers can be provided only when their responses are deemed appropriate by the dominant group. Individual learning through discriminative training, equivalence class formation, transfer of functions, stimulus generalization, and function altering were also discussed. Patterns such as aggression, escape, and avoidance, were identified in the actions of racial aggressors. Finally, the victim's reactions were also identified as escape, avoidance, or aggression of racial aggressors, but also as effects of processes such as learned helplessness, extinction after elimination of benefits, countercontrol, and respondent conditioning. Despite the lack of research in the field, behavior analysis has the power to elucidate some variables related to this theme, aiding, thus, evidence-based intervention proposals.

Conducting In-Home Functional Analyses of Aggression and Self-Injury Exhibited by Boys with Fragile X Syndrome.

Boys with fragile X syndrome (FXS) are at increased risk for exhibiting aggression and self-injury that can be extremely disruptive to families. Few studies, however, have examined the extent to which social-environmental factors can influence these behaviors, particularly in home settings. Caregivers of 32 boys with FXS, aged 3 to 10 years, were coached by a board-certified behavior analyst to implement a functional analysis (FA) with their child in their home over 2 days. The functions identified in the FAs were validated by behavioral interventions conducted through telehealth over 12 weeks. Social functions for aggression and self-injury were identified in 29 (90.6%) cases, with the most common functions identified being escape from demands/transitions and/or tangible reinforcement. Subsequent function-based behavioral interventions (i.e., functional communication training) implemented for 22 cases by telehealth resulted in decreased rates of aggression and self-injury by 74% to 100%. These data underscore the significant impact that social-environmental factors can have on the development and maintenance of aggression and self-injury in FXS. Conducting early home-based behavioral interventions designed to increase functional communication skills may therefore be an effective solution for the treatment of aggression and self-injury in FXS in the long term.

CBM-I Training and Its Effect on Interpretations of Intent, Facial Expressions, Attention and Aggressive Behavior.

There is abundant evidence suggesting that attention and interpretation biases are powerful precursors of aggression. However, little is known how these biases may interact with one another in the development and maintenance of aggression. Using cognitive bias modification of interpretation (CBM-I), the present study examined whether training more pro-social or hostile intent attributions would affect attention bias, interpretation bias of facial expressions, aggression and mood. University students (17–48 years) were assigned to either a positive training (n = 40), negative training (n = 40), or control training (n = 40). Results showed that the positive training successfully changed measures of intent attributions in a pro-social direction compared to the control training. The negative training changed measures of intent attributions in a hostile direction but not more so than the control training. We found no generalization of the training effects to relevant other outcomes. Possible explanations underlying these findings are discussed.

Modification of hostile attribution bias reduces self-reported reactive aggressive behavior in adolescents

Aggressive individuals more readily interpret others’ motives and intentions in ambiguous situations as hostile. This hostile attribution bias has been argued to be causally involved in the development and maintenance of aggression, making it a target for interventions. In our current study, adolescents selected for high levels of aggression (N = 39) were assigned to either a test–retest control group or a five-session hostile attribution bias modification training, in which they were trained to make more benign interpretations of ambiguously provocative social situations. Before and after the training, we assessed hostile attribution bias and both reactive and proactive self-reported aggression in both groups. The training not only tended to produce the expected reduction in hostile attribution bias but also crucially led to decreased levels of reactive but not proactive aggression compared with the control group. Our results thus support the idea that hostile attribution bias can be targeted using training techniques and that such training-induced changes in bias may reduce aggression. However, future studies using an active control group and multiple outcome measures are needed to address the long-term effects of training.

Aggression in Drosophila.

Aggression is used by essentially all species of animals to gain access to desired resources, including territory, food, and potential mates: Fruit flies are no exception. In Drosophila, both males and females compete in same sex fights for resources, but only males establish hierarchical relationships. Many investigators now study aggression using the fruit fly model, mainly because (a) aggression in fruit flies is a quantifiable well-defined and easily evoked behavior; (b) powerful genetic methods allow investigators to manipulate genes of interest at any place or time during embryonic, larval, pupal or adult life, and while flies are behaving; (c) the growth of the relatively new field of optogenetics makes physiological studies possible at single neuron levels despite the small sizes of neurons and other types of cells in fly brains; and (d) the rearing of fly stocks with their short generation times and limited growth space requirements can easily be performed at relatively low cost in most laboratories. This review begins with an examination of the behavior, both from a historical perspective and then from the birth of the "modern" era of studies of aggression in fruit flies including its quantitative analysis. The review continues with examinations of the roles of genes, neurotransmitters and neurohormones, peptides, nutritional and metabolic status, and surface cuticular hydrocarbons in the initiation and maintenance of aggression. It concludes with suggestions for future studies with this important model system.

Childhood trauma and parental style: Relationship with markers of inflammation, oxidative stress, and aggression in healthy and personality disordered subjects

Recent studies suggest that early life trauma is associated with elevations in circulating markers of inflammation in human subjects. History of aggression as a behavior, or aggression as a personality trait, is also associated with elevations of these inflammatory markers. Since early life trauma is associated with the development and maintenance of aggression in later life we examined the relationship of early life adversity, plasma inflammation markers (IL-6 and CRP) and oxidative stress markers (8-OH-DG and 8-ISO), and aggression in adult subjects with (n=79) and without (n=55) personality disorder. We used a series of mediated and moderated path models to test whether the effects of early adversity on later aggression may be mediated through markers of inflammation. Childhood abuse and parental control were associated with basal IL-6 and CRP concentrations. Path modeling suggested that childhood abuse was associated with aggression indirectly through CRP while parental control influenced aggression indirectly through IL-6 and CRP. Furthermore, these effects were independent of the effect of current depression. The results suggest that disruption of inflammatory processes represent one pathway by which early adversity influences aggression.

Neural correlates of masked and unmasked face emotion processing in youth with severe mood dysregulation.

Reproducibility of results is important in improving the robustness of conclusions drawn from research, particularly in functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). In this study, we aim to replicate a previous study on the neural correlates of face emotion processing above and below awareness level using an independent sample of youth with severe mood dysregulation (SMD) and healthy volunteers (HV). We collected fMRI data in 17 SMD and 20 HV, using an affective priming paradigm with masked (17 ms) and unmasked (187 ms) faces (angry, happy, neutral, blank oval). When processing masked and unmasked angry faces, SMD patients exhibited increased activation in the parahippocampal gyrus (PHG) and superior temporal gyrus relative to HV. When processing masked and unmasked happy faces, SMD patients showed decreased activation in the insula, PHG and thalamus compared with HV. During masked face processing in general across emotions, youth with SMD showed greater ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) activation relative to HV. Perturbed activation in emotion processing areas (e.g. insula, PHG, superior temporal gyrus and thalamus) manifests as hyper-sensitivity toward negative emotions and hypo-sensitivity toward positive emotions may be important in the etiology and maintenance of irritability, aggression and depressive symptoms in SMD. vmPFC dysfunction may mediate over-reactivity to face emotions associated with irritability.

Releasing stimuli and aggression in crickets: octopamine promotes escalation and maintenance but not initiation

Biogenic amines have widespread effects on numerous behaviors, but their natural functions are often unclear. We investigated the role of octopamine (OA), the invertebrate analog of noradrenaline, on initiation and maintenance of aggression in male crickets of different social status. The key-releasing stimulus for aggression is antennal fencing between males, a behavior occurring naturally on initial contact. We show that mechanical antennal stimulation (AS) alone is sufficient to initiate an aggressive response (mandible threat display). The efficacy of AS as an aggression releasing stimulus was augmented in winners of a previous fight, but unaffected in losers. The efficacy of AS was not, however, influenced by OA receptor (OAR) agonists or antagonists, regardless of social status. Additional experiments indicate that the efficacy of AS is also not influenced by dopamine (DA) or serotonin (5HT). In addition to initiating an aggressive response, prior AS enhanced aggression exhibited in subsequent fights, whereby AS with a male antenna was now necessary, indicating a role for male contact pheromones. This priming effect of male-AS on subsequent aggression was dependent on OA since it was blocked by OAR-antagonists, and enhanced by OAR-agonists. Together our data reveal that neither OA, DA nor 5HT are required for initiating aggression in crickets, nor do these amines influence the efficacy of the natural releasing stimulus to initiate aggression. OA's natural function is restricted to promoting escalation and maintenance of aggression once initiated, and this can be invoked by numerous experiences, including prior contact with a male antenna as shown here.

The role of anxiety in the development, maintenance, and treatment of childhood aggression.

The majority of aggressive children exhibit symptoms of anxiety, yet none of our developmental models of aggression incorporate the role of anxiety, and our treatments ignore this comorbidity. This article outlines a novel theoretical model that specifies three hypotheses about comorbid anxious and aggressive children: (a) unpredictable parenting induces anxiety in children that in turn triggers aggressive behavior; (b) prolonged periods of anxiety deplete children's capacity to inhibit impulses and trigger bouts of aggression, and aggression in turn functions to regulate levels of anxiety; and (c) minor daily stressors give rise to anxiety while cognitive perseveration maintains anxious moods, increasingly disposing children to aggress. Little or no research has directly tested these hypotheses. Extant research and theory consistent with these claims are herein reviewed, and future research designs that can test them specifically are suggested. The clinical implications most relevant to the hypotheses are discussed, and to improve the efficacy of treatments for childhood aggression, it is proposed that anxiety may need to be the primary target of treatment.

Associations between parental psychological control and relational aggression in children and adolescents: A multilevel and sequential meta-analysis.

Youth aggression has been associated with negative parenting practices, but previous research about this association has mainly focused on physical and verbal aggression. Because more subtle forms of aggression are considered at least as harmful as their physical and verbal counterparts, there is a growing scientific interest in parenting practices that are linked with relational aggression. Guided by social learning theory, a link between youth relational aggression and parental psychological control has been postulated, but the empirical evidence is inconsistent. The present meta-analysis provides a multilevel and sequential quantitative synthesis of 165 dependent effect sizes (23 studies) encompassing 8,958 youths. Across studies, a positive, albeit weak, association between parental psychological control and relational aggression was found. The sequential analysis demonstrated that sufficient cumulative knowledge was attained to yield convincing evidence on this overall association. Moderator analyses revealed that developmental period and assessment method were associated with differences in research findings. Overall, however, results suggest that clarifying the precise role of psychological control in the development and maintenance of relational aggression requires more targeted primary research, which in turn would allow additional and more complex synthesis efforts with potentially more nuanced conclusions.

Assessing and treating aggression and conduct problems in schools: Implications from the Coping Power program

AbstractChildren with high levels of aggressive behavior and conduct problems create major management problems in school settings and interfere with the learning environment of their classmates and with their own academic achievement. A contextual social‐cognitive model can provide a framework for understanding risk factors involved in the development and maintenance of aggression and conduct problems in children. The model also outlines important areas for intervention, including family factors, peer relationships, classroom and neighborhood factors, and children's social‐cognitive functioning. Evidence‐based, cognitive‐behavioral intervention and prevention programs for aggression and conduct problems have been developed to address risk factors that occur within the family, the school setting, and children's social‐cognitive processes. This article will review several evidence‐based, cognitive‐behavioral programs appropriate for children in preschool through late elementary school. We will also discuss how cognitive‐behavioral programs can be disseminated to school staff, and we will present important considerations in the selection of intervention and prevention programs. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Androgen levels and anger and impulsivity measures as predictors of physical, verbal and indirect aggression in boys and girls

Previous studies indicate that androgen levels and certain psychological characteristics such as anger and impulsivity are related to the development and maintenance of aggression. Further studies are required to analyze the potential predictor role of the interaction of said factors on aggressive behavior. 90 nine-year-old children (44 boys and 46 girls) were assessed in relation to their levels of physical, verbal and indirect aggression, using a peer-rating technique. Testosterone and androstenedione levels were analyzed using an enzymoimmunoassay technique in saliva samples. Anger (state and trait) and anger control were measured using the STAXI-NA, and impulsivity was measured through the MFF-20. A General Linear Model revealed that sex was the best predictor for aggression measures, with boys scoring higher than girls in physical, verbal and indirect aggression; after sex, testosterone was found to be the best predictor (in a positive sense) of all three types of aggressive behavior studied. In addition to observing a main effect of androstenedione on physical and verbal aggression, a 'state anger*androstenedione' interaction was found to predict these types of aggression, with androstenedione acting as a moderator (inhibitor) of the effects of anger on these behaviors; also, a 'state anger*testosterone' interaction was found to predict verbal aggression. The results support the idea that, after sex, androgens constitute a biological marker to be taken into consideration in relation to individual differences in aggressive behavior. It is possible that at the age of 9, testosterone tends to increase aggression, while androstenedione tends to moderate (inhibit) the effects of anger on aggression.

Developmental Origins of Chronic Physical Aggression and Epigenetics

Over the past half century, two theoretical models strongly inf luenced research on the development of human physical aggression: social learning and disease onset. According to these developmental perspectives, children learn to physically aggress from their environment, and the onset of the disease is triggered by the accumulated exposure to aggressive models in the environment such as family violence, neighborhood violence and media violence. Most of the evidence came from studies of school-aged children and adolescents. Recent longitudinal studies tracing developmental trajectories of physical aggression from early childhood onwards suggest an inversed developmental process. Frequency of physical aggression is at its peak during early childhood and, as they age, children learn socially acceptable behaviors from interactions with their environment [1,2]. A ‘disease’ status is eventually given to children who failed to learn socially acceptable behaviors. The mechanisms that lead to deficits in learning to use socially accepted behaviors appear to be strongly intergenerational, based on complex genetic and environmental contributions. Longitudinal studies initiated during the perinatal period suggest that several early life environmental factors are involved in triggering the mechanisms that lead to deficits in learning to use socially acceptable behaviors for solving problems. These include family characteristics (e.g., poverty and marital conflicts), maternal history of behavior problems (e.g., antisocial behavior, school failure, teen pregnancy and depression), maternal lifestyle during pregnancy (e.g., smoking) and maternal parenting practices (e.g., coercive discipline) [2]. These family and maternal characteristics can be used to identify at-risk pregnant women and offer them adequate support [3]. Genetic studies have also identified sequence differences in critical genes such as MOA, the serotonin transporter and others, which may play a role in the development and maintenance of chronic aggression. However, an increasing number of studies are demonstrating that phenotypic variations in behavior cannot be accounted for by just these genetic differences, and that the phenotype would best be accounted for by an interaction of genetic and environmental factors. Experiments with nonhuman primates that measured the impact of maternal deprivation on the behavior of monkeys with different 5-HTT genotypes illustrated how gene–environment interactions might provide a better explanation for certain behavioral phenotypes such as aggression than genetic differences per se [4,5]. These data suggest that social–environmental triggers are extremely important in defining the final phenotype and they can override a phenotype driven by sequence differences present in critical genes. This primate study is consistent with other studies in humans. Association studies in humans have suggested, for example, that violent behavior in humans was more frequent for males who were maltreated during childhood when they had a genotype conferring low MAO-A activity [6]. However, further studies indicate that these gene–environment statistical interactions may depend on age, severity of maltreatment and situational factors, and may apply to many other types of behavior problems [7–9]. A criticism of the approach to mental health that focuses on statistical interactions between one gene variant and one environmental factor is that it ignores the potential diverse statistical and bio–psycho–social interactions between multiple gene variants and varied environmental conditions that lead to a multitude of endophenotypes and phenotypes related to mental

Violence against the partner: a new animal model in rats

Event Abstract Back to Event Violence against the partner: a new animal model in rats Maria-Isabel Cordero-Campana1, 2*, Cristina Marquez1, Sandra Rusconi-Serpa2, Francois Ansermet2 and Carmen Sandi1 1 Brain Mind Institute,EPFL, Laboratory of Behavioural Genetics, Brain Mind Institute, Switzerland 2 University Hospital Geneva, Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Switzerland Intimate partner violence (IPV) victimization involves physical, sexual, and/or psychological abuse by an intimate partner, engendering a major risk to develop physical and mental health problems. Research over the past 20 years has uncovered both its ubiquitous nature and the inefficacy of applied legal measures in preventing recidivism. These observations point out at biological causes as potential key factors in the development and maintenance of this type of assault. However, to date, biological research has been very limited due to the difficulty of addressing these issues in humans which underscores the relevance of developing an animal model. The goal of this study was, precisely, to develop an IPV model in rats. Adult female rats were exposed during 21-days to cohabitation with aggressive males. Aggressive males were generated by submitting male rats to unpredictable mild stressors during the peripuberty period (PS). The effectiveness of our manipulation to model IPV is supported by the following findings: i) PS male rats show increased aggression against females partners as compared to control males; ii) Dams cohabitating with PS male rats develop behavioural and endocrine disturbances that mimic the “syndrome of battered women”, and iii) Male offspring of PS fathers show higher levels of aggression than offspring from control males, a finding reminiscent of epidemiologic observations indicating that male children experiencing domestic violence have increased probability of becoming an abuser. Despite the limitations of animal models to reproduce human psychopathology, the good face validity of this IPV model supports its relevance to further explore neurobiological mechanisms involved in the pathogenesis and maintenance of abnormal aggression and its intergenerational transmission, as well as to develop and test for potential treatments. Work supported by grants from the EU 7th FP (MemStick) and the Swiss National Science Foundation. Conference: 41st European Brain and Behaviour Society Meeting, Rhodes Island, Greece, 13 Sep - 18 Sep, 2009. Presentation Type: Poster Presentation Topic: Poster presentations Citation: Cordero-Campana M, Marquez C, Rusconi-Serpa S, Ansermet F and Sandi C (2009). Violence against the partner: a new animal model in rats. Conference Abstract: 41st European Brain and Behaviour Society Meeting. doi: 10.3389/conf.neuro.08.2009.09.119 Copyright: The abstracts in this collection have not been subject to any Frontiers peer review or checks, and are not endorsed by Frontiers. They are made available through the Frontiers publishing platform as a service to conference organizers and presenters. The copyright in the individual abstracts is owned by the author of each abstract or his/her employer unless otherwise stated. Each abstract, as well as the collection of abstracts, are published under a Creative Commons CC-BY 4.0 (attribution) licence (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) and may thus be reproduced, translated, adapted and be the subject of derivative works provided the authors and Frontiers are attributed. For Frontiers’ terms and conditions please see https://www.frontiersin.org/legal/terms-and-conditions. Received: 08 Jun 2009; Published Online: 08 Jun 2009. * Correspondence: Maria-Isabel Cordero-Campana, Brain Mind Institute,EPFL, Laboratory of Behavioural Genetics, Brain Mind Institute, Lausanne 1015 Vaud, Switzerland, m.cordero@mmu.ac.uk Login Required This action requires you to be registered with Frontiers and logged in. To register or login click here. Abstract Info Abstract The Authors in Frontiers Maria-Isabel Cordero-Campana Cristina Marquez Sandra Rusconi-Serpa Francois Ansermet Carmen Sandi Google Maria-Isabel Cordero-Campana Cristina Marquez Sandra Rusconi-Serpa Francois Ansermet Carmen Sandi Google Scholar Maria-Isabel Cordero-Campana Cristina Marquez Sandra Rusconi-Serpa Francois Ansermet Carmen Sandi PubMed Maria-Isabel Cordero-Campana Cristina Marquez Sandra Rusconi-Serpa Francois Ansermet Carmen Sandi Related Article in Frontiers Google Scholar PubMed Abstract Close Back to top Javascript is disabled. Please enable Javascript in your browser settings in order to see all the content on this page.

Brain Oxytocin: A Key Regulator of Emotional and Social Behaviours in Both Females and Males

In addition to various reproductive stimuli, the neuropeptide oxytocin (OXT) is released both from the neurohypophysial terminal into the blood stream and within distinct brain regions in response to stressful or social stimuli. Brain OXT receptor-mediated actions were shown to be significantly involved in the regulation of a variety of behaviours. Here, complementary methodological approaches are discussed which were utilised to reveal, for example, anxiolytic and anti-stress effects of OXT, both in females and in males, effects that were localised within the central amygdala and the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus. Also, in male rats, activation of the brain OXT system is essential for the regulation of sexual behaviour, and increased OXT system activity during mating is directly linked to an attenuated anxiety-related behaviour. Moreover, in late pregnancy and during lactation, central OXT is involved in the establishment and fine-tuned maintenance of maternal care and maternal aggression. In monogamous prairie voles, brain OXT is important for mating-induced pair bonding, especially in females. Another example of behavioural actions of intracerebral OXT is the promotion of social memory processes and recognition of con-specifics, as revealed in rats, mice, sheep and voles. Experimental evidence suggests that, in humans, brain OXT exerts similar behavioural effects. Thus, the brain OXT system seems to be a potential target for the development of therapeutics to treat anxiety- and depression-related diseases or abnormal social behaviours including autism.

Constipation Associated with Self-Injurious and Aggressive Behavior Exhibited by a Child Diagnosed with Autism

A functional analysis was conducted to identify the role environmental variables had on the maintenance of self-injury and aggression. At the outset of the evaluation, an abdominal x-ray showed a moderate to large amount of stool throughout the colon (i.e., constipation). Consequently, medication was administered to promote bowel emptying. Initial high rates of self-injury and aggression reduced to near-zero levels following bowel cleanout, yielding undifferentiated functional analysis results.

“Sugar and Spice But Not Always Nice”: Gender Socialization and its Impact on Development and Maintenance of Aggression in Adolescent Girls

Aggression in girls is a problem that is gaining increased attention. The indirect forms of relational aggression historically used by girls to harm their victims are increasingly escalating into physical altercations. An understanding of the interplay between the developmental and contextual factors that contribute to learned aggression in girls is needed to inform program development that truly responds to the unique gender socialization of girls. This article examines parental, environmental, and peer factors for their contributions to the development of girls’ aggression. Implications for program development that teaches girls and their families alternative ways of expressing their needs and protecting themselves from harm is discussed.

Developmental Issues in School-Based Aggression Prevention from a Social-Cognitive Perspective

Contemporary research on the development and prevention of aggressive behavior in childhood and adolescence emphasizes the importance of social-cognitive factors such as perceptual biases, problem-solving skills, and social-moral beliefs in the maintenance of aggression. Indeed, school-based social-cognitive intervention approaches have been identified as best practices by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. However, because child age is an important covariate of both intervention effectiveness and social-cognitive ability, school-based prevention program designers should keep in mind a number of issues identified through developmental research. In this paper, we review the social-cognitive model of aggressive behavior development as applied to prevention programming. We then discuss some of the ways in which the broader developmental research base can inform the design of aggression prevention programs. EDITORS' STRATEGIC IMPLICATIONS: Educational administrators and policy makers will find evidence in this review that school-based programs that employ a social-cognitive model represent a strategy that works for preventing violence. Prevention researchers will also benefit from the authors' insights regarding theoretical mediating processes and the importance of a developmental view.

Relational Aggression in Middle School

With increasing attention to school violence and aggression, it is argued that more covert, natured, subtle conflicts among students should be carefully examined and addressed to prevent negative outcomes. This article provides an overview of current knowledge on relational aggression including its definition, its link to a number of adjustment difficulties, and contexts contributing to the maintenance of relational aggression. Based on the review of empirical findings, educational implications for teachers and school administrators are discussed with an emphasis on an urgent need to promote a greater understanding of relational aggression and develop effective, innovative approaches in schools. The discussion also includes specific recommendations for prevention and intervention of relational aggression in middle school.