Mainland Women Research Articles

Mainland Women's Empowerment and Economic Policy Through Development Home Industry ( IRT) in Nagari Sungai Cubadak, Baso District, Agam Regency

Mainland Women's Empowerment and Economic Policy Through Development Home Industry ( IRT) in Nagari Sungai Cubadak, Baso District, Agam Regency

Strangers on the ladder of the party‐state: Women in teaching in Nationalist Taiwan, 1940s–1980s

AbstractAs the ruling party of a party‐state in China and Taiwan, the Nationalist Party (Kuomintang/Guomindang) built a close relationship with the teaching profession. Many teachers joined the party and there was a well‐trodden pathway from teaching into local representative politics and civil service. In the early 1950s when most teachers were men, the party's special relationship with teaching was consistent with a generally conservative approach to gender. Large numbers of women entered teaching from the late 1940s. This was a global trend but was accelerated in Taiwan by the unique form of coloniality on the island in the post war era. The government required teachers to be Mandarin‐speakers and favoured Mainlanders. Although Taiwanese women were still disadvantaged, Mainland women had some advantage over Taiwanese men. The rapid rise of women in teaching sparked a degree of resistance, which was in turn countered by rhetoric that feminised teaching. Despite such resistance, the party‐state's pathways from teaching into politics endured and facilitated the entry of a significant number of women into local electoral politics.

Cross‐border marriages in pre‐ and post‐handover Hong Kong

AbstractGiven the ever‐increasing economic and social ties with the Mainland, Hong Kong‐Mainland cross‐border marriage patterns experienced significant changes after the handover. The proportion of cross‐border marriages only accounted for 2% of marriages registered in Hong Kong in the pre‐handover period but jumped to 34.7% after the handover. This study examines the impact of stronger economic ties and weakened social and cultural boundaries on the patterns of assortative mating in cross‐border marriages. As most of the cross‐border workers from Hong Kong are males, they have increasing opportunities for social interaction with Mainland women in communities and social circles in the Mainland. After the handover, the language skills of residents on both sides showed significant improvement and this can enhance the possibility of finding a marriage partner across the border. Empirical results suggest a weaker positive assortative mating in respect of age and educational attainment among Hong Kong husband‐Mainland wife couples after the handover. Previous studies suggest that marital partner selection reflects the strength of social boundaries and the strength of these boundaries should be stronger for cross‐border marriages. The results of this paper support the view that stronger economic ties and weakened social and cultural boundaries do promote cross‐border marriages and negative assortative mating in these marriages.

Effects of Progressive Upper Limb Exercises and Muscle Relaxation Training on Upper Limb Function and Health-Related Quality of Life Following Surgery in Women with Breast Cancer: A Clinical Randomized Controlled Trial.

The aim of this study was to examine the effects of progressive upper limb exercises and muscle relaxation training (PULE-MRT) on upper limb function and health-related quality of life (HRQoL) following surgery in Chinese mainland women with breast cancer (BC). Overall, 102 patients following surgery (i.e. mastectomy or breast-conserving surgery, with sentinel lymph node biopsy or axillary lymph node dissection) were randomly allocated to the intervention (n = 51) or control (n = 51) groups. The former received PULE-MRT plus routine nursing care, whereas the latter received only routine nursing care for 6months. Upper limb function and HRQoL were measured at baseline and 1, 3, and 6months using Constant-Murley scores (CMS) and Functional Assessment of Cancer Therapy-Breast version 4.0 (FACT-Bv4.0), respectively. All patients in the intervention group completed the exercises and training, with 100% compliance and no adverse events. The intervention group had significantly higher total CMS and FACT-Bv4.0 scores at 1-, 3-, and 6-month follow-up than the control group. The significant effects in total CMS comparisons were group (F = 25.30, p < 0.001), time (F = 18.02, p < 0.001), and group-by-time interaction (F = 9.95, p < 0.001), and, in FACT-Bv4.0, total score comparisons were group (F = 15.87, p < 0.001), time (F = 17.92, p < 0.001), and group-by-time interaction (F = 7.88, p < 0.001). Similar results were observed for the scale scores of CMS and FACT-Bv4.0. PULE-MRT had positive effects on improving upper limb function and HRQoL following surgery in women with BC and could be used as an optional rehabilitation management strategy in post-surgery BC patient populations. Trial Registration ChiCTR-IOR-16008253 (Chictr.org.cn; 9 April 2016).

Remarriages and transnational marriages in Hong Kong: implications and challenges

ABSTRACT Marriage, divorce, and remarriage have undergone significant changes in the past two decades in Hong Kong. Types of marriages have become more diverse, with increasing number of cross-border marriages between Hongkongers and Mainland Chinese as well as cross-national marriages with non-local-and-non-Chinese ethnic groups. Meanwhile, divorces and remarriages are surging, with disproportionate increase of remarriages among those in transnational marriages. Particularly, the proportion of remarriages among marriages between Hong Kong men and Mainland women, and Hong Kong women and Mainland men increased to 40% and 27%, respectively in 2012. This study investigates assortative mating in marriages by separating remarriages from first marriages, to uncover the real patterns and uniqueness in Hong Kong. The results show that assortative mating in first marriages and remarriages appear across local marriages and six types of transnational marriages. And it also shows that remarriages between Hong Kong men and Mainland women have become more hypergamous, and more welfare support is needed to assist socially deprived cross-border couples to reside in Hong Kong.

Imagining accidental fetal citizens: pregnant Mainland women and the cultural politics of birthright citizenship

ABSTRACTThis essay looks at the mobility of pregnant Mainland women in Hong Kong to expose the reverberations of the SAR government's immigration policies relating to cross-border birth tourism. Pregnant Mainland women and their children (fetuses), as emergent social subjects, embody conflict and the negotiation between population governance and economic benefits. The government denies pregnant Mainland women the right to give birth in Hong Kong based on their non-eligible status while admitting their children to be born in Hong Kong on the grounds that their children meet Hong Kong's future demand for population renewal, in this way boosting the development of childbirth tourism. However, the localism, which has had an extensive influence on Hong Kong local society in recent years, has rejected the SAR government's “population renewal” imaginary by suggesting its own “locust imaginary.” The government's acceptance and the local's exclusion of the population flow between China and Hong Kong imply distinct cross-border subject imaginations. Only by contextualizing and critically analyzing the various othering identities such as the non-eligible or locusts can we better understand the cultural politics of Hong Kong birthright citizenship over recent years.

A CRITICAL STUDY OF KONG GIRLS PHENOMENON IN HONGKONG SOCIETY

Purpose of the study: The term, Kong Girls is new in Hong Kong in the past ten years. The purpose of this research is to suggest reasons behind the Kong Girls phenomenon and to explore whether this will continue to be a factor for Hong Kong men marrying Mainland women.&#x0D; Methodology: Seven interviews with typical Hong Kong Kong Girls were conducted within a similar period of time in 2015. One non-Kong-Girl was also interviewed as a control.&#x0D; Main Findings: findings of this research indicate that the Kong Girls phenomenon may be a social problem in the long run and Hong Kong men have to continue to find their wives outside Hong Kong if traditional thinking is not to be changed. If Hong Kong women continue to be Kong Girls, both genders may not be able to find their partner locally at their home city.&#x0D; Implications: social studies, psychology, gender issues&#x0D; Novelty/Originality of this study: This article helps explain why Hong Kong women prefer to marry non-Hong Kong men or choose to remain single. This is first of its kind study.

Blurring Boundaries? Immigration and Exogamous Marriages in Hong Kong

This article uses micro‐data from the Hong Kong census since 1991 to report trends in the integration of Chinese residents who were born either in Colonial Hong Kong or in Mainland China. We focus on marital exogamy by nativity for women aged 25–34. From 1991 to 2011, we found an increasing likelihood for Hong Kong native men and Mainland women to be married to one another. This increase reflects cross‐border marriages. Such exogamous marriages were associated with a lower degree of educational homogamy, since Hong Kong‐born men tend to be more educated than their Mainland spouses. They are also older than their immigrant wives. Implications for social distance between natives and immigrants in this context of exogamous marriages are discussed.

Hypergamy, Cross-Boundary Marriages, and Family Behavior

We study the rise in marriages between residents of HK and China following the handover of HK to China in 1997. Cross-boundary marriages accounted for almost half the marriages registered in HK in 2006. Because of large differences in male income between China and HK, marriages of HK men with Mainland women outnumbered those of HK women with mainland men sevenfold. Following the handover, HK women had lower marriage, higher divorce and higher emigration rates. These outcomes are predicted by our matching model and contradict the hypothesis that cross-boundary marriages were driven by rising education of HK women.

Mainlanders as ‘Others’ in the Life and Law of Hong Kong

This article assesses the significance of the colonial period in the development of the Hong Kong Chinese identity and the way it is expressed through discriminatory legal settings against Mainland Chinese. The central argument is that British-led social welfare initiatives in the mid-1950s and the border-crossing restrictions in the early 19605 had the inevitable effect of assimilating extant refugee populations and creating the Hong Kong identity on a foundation of Mainlander 'otherness'. In light of the economic convergence of the Mainland and Hong Kong, the article contends that current controversies - such as Mainland women seeking to have their babies in Hong Kong - are transitional as economic convergence with the Mainland will render Hong Kong identity a cultural rather than political or legal subject.

Cross-border Childbirth Between Mainland China and Hong Kong: Social Pressures and Policy Outcomes

Using secondary data analysis, this paper examines the societal impact of mainland Chinese expectant mothers who gave birth in Hong Kong (HK). In 2009, 45.4% of live births were born to this group of women, compared to 10.2% in 1995. These women agreed unanimously that giving birth in HK would secure the future of their child with permanent residency, access to free education, subsidised health care, social welfare benefits and a better standard of living. For parents who choose to have more than one child, cross-border birthing can provide an opportunity to bypass China’s one-child policy. This rising trend has put heavy pressure on the already stretched obstetric services at the expense of local women. The Hospital Authority (HA) responsible for public hospitals acknowledged that in the 2004-5 financial year, 1 670 mainland women failed to pay HK$12.64 million (USD1.63m) in hospital bills; and in 2005-6, 2 138 women defaulted HK$28.58m (USD3.68m). In response to protests at this situation and the lack of an effective policy, HA introduced an obstetric package in February 2007. Non-local expectant mothers must now pay HK$39 000 (USD5 000) in advance to cover one antenatal visit, delivery service and delivery-related hospitalisation for three days; non-compliant women would be charged HK$48 000 (USD6 154). Mainland women who are over 28 weeks’ gestation are now denied entry at immigration checkpoint if they do not have a prior booking. Between February and December 2007, an HA audit showed a 229% increase in booking for public hospitals alone and secured HK$257.4m (USD33m) in fees. Non-compliant cases and last-minute hospital admissions were significantly reduced. In addition to the high bill settlement rate, this policy has provided a steady workload and training opportunities for many health care providers. If these new citizens remain in HK, they may contribute to the prosperity as well as alleviating the ageing population of HK.

Age-related changes of serum tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase 5b and the relationship with bone mineral density in Chinese women

Osteoclastic activity is mainly assessed by measurement of urinary markers (eg C-terminal cross-linked telopeptides of type I collagen, N-terminal crosslinked telopeptides of type I collagen, etc), the levels of which could often be affected by renal clearance. Recently, serum tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase 5b (TRACP5b) has been used as an alternative serum marker to evaluate osteoclastic activity. We investigated the age-related changes of TRACP5b level and its association with bone mineral density (BMD) in Chinese women. Seven-hundred and twenty-two Chinese mainland women aged 20-79 years were recruited in the study. Serum TRACP5b level was measured using immunoassay to evaluate the state of bone resorption. Bone mineral density (BMD) (g/cm2) at lumbar spine 1-4 and proximal femur were measured by duelenergy X-ray absorptiometry. The serum TRACP5b level reached a bottom value in premenopausal women aged 30-39, gradually increased in women aged 40-49, rapidly rose in women aged 50-59, and culminated with a maximum value in women aged 60-69 before a slow drop in women aged 70- 79. The average level of TRACP5b was significantly higher in postmenopausal women [(3.29+/-1.07) U/L] than in premenopausal women ([1.70+/-0.59] U/L). The levels of TRACP5b were inversely correlated with BMD at all measured sites (P<0.001). Furthermore, the level of TRACP5b was obviously higher in women with osteoporosis and osteopenia than those with normal bone mass (P<0.001). We have established the reference values of serum TRACP5b in Chinese mainland women, and found that postmenopausal women had higher TRACP5b concentration than younger women. The results showed that serum TRACP5b was a sensitive and useful parameter for the evaluation of age-related changes of bone absorption.

Characteristics of calcaneus quantitative ultrasound normative data in Chinese mainland men and women

Quantitative ultrasound (QUS) assessment at the calcaneus, as a safe and reliable method for evaluating skeletal status, is rapidly gaining in popularity. Assessment by QUS provides three parameters of skeletal status: broadband ultrasound attenuation (BUA), speed of sound (SOS) and derived data-stiffness index (STI). The objective of the present study was firstly to determine the normative QUS data on healthy Chinese mainland men and women and secondly to investigate the effects of sex, age and body size on these three QUS parameters. A study cohort consisting of 725 healthy Chinese women and 568 men aged 10-83 years participated in this investigation. The three QUS parameters all exhibited a characteristic mild rise-then-fall pattern with increasing age in both sexes. Younger men and women had similar QUS values, while older women had lower values than older men. Age-related differences were more pronounced among females. Pearson's correlation and regression analysis showed that weight was a major determinant of QUS in both sexes, along with age. There were some discrepancies between our data and results from other populations, even when the same type of QUS instrument was used, probably as a result of various factors, including ethnic, life-style environment and diet, among others. These normative data will be useful for comparing the results of individual studies, predicting fracture risk of Chinese men and women and determining diagnostic criteria of osteoporosis by QUS.

Age-related changes of serum bone alkaline phosphatase and cross-linked C-telopeptides of type I collagen and the relationship with bone mineral density in Chinese women

Background Previous studies have shown that bone turnover rate changes with age. At the same time, there is no definitive research regarding age-related changes of bone turnover level and its association with bone mineral density (BMD) in Chinese mainland women. Methods In a cohort of 663 Chinese mainland women aged 20–70 years, serum bone alkaline phosphatase (BAP) and serum cross-linked C-telopeptides of type I collagen (sCTX) were measured to evaluate the state of bone formation and resorption, respectively. BMD was measured in the posteroanterior spine, supine lateral spine, hip and forearm using a dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. Results The cubic polynomial regression model best fit age-related changes in serum BAP ( R 2 = 0.398, p < 0.001) and sCTX concentrations ( R 2 = 0.148, p < 0.001) with largest R 2 from comparison 8 different regression models. Their values reached a minimal level in the 30–39 years age group, and increased dramatically in the 40–59 years groups. There was a decreasing trend of BAP in women > 60 years. The levels of BAP and sCTX were inversely correlated to BMD in various skeletal regions over the entire population ( r = − 0.096 to − 0.357, p < 0.05). sCTX was a significant predictor of a T-score ≤ − 2.5 of BMD in postmenopausal women with sCTX levels above mean + 2 SD of women aged 30–39 years compared with other postmenopausal women, which indicated by odds ratios 1.9–3.7 ( p < 0.05) for various skeletal regions, especially for the lateral lumbar spine (2.2, p < 0.01), Ward's triangle (3.7, p < 0.01), and ultradistal end of radius+ulna (2.8, p < 0.001). Conclusions Age-dependent serum BAP and sCTX were inversely correlated to BMD, and sCTX was a useful parameter for the prediction of a low T-score of BMD at skeletal sites with abundant cancellous bone in postmenopausal women.

Cross-border 'Traffic': Stories of dangerous victims, pure whores and HIV/AIDS in the experiences of mainland female sex workers in Hong Kong

: In recent years, dramatically increasing numbers of mainland Chinese women have entered Hong Kong to engage in sexual labour. Public discourses on the threat of HIV/AIDS increasingly locate these women's bodies as sites of danger, colluding with pre-existing imaginations of mainland rural women as ignorant, desperate and deceptive in representing these women's penetration of Hong Kong's border as a primary means of infection of the Hong Kong body. Drawing on state, media and popular representations, and the narratives of female sex workers themselves, this paper examines the interwoven bio-medical, gendered, sexual and cross-border relationships that intersect in the experiences of mainland Chinese sex workers in Hong Kong. I argue that while images of disease and danger have been used to regulate these women's bodies, mainland female sex workers challenge these images by drawing on other popular stereotypes of mainland women as pure, feminine and traditional. Although images of the related but still ‘other’ figure of the mainland Chinese woman are powerful mechanisms for the regulation of these women's bodies, mainland female sex workers skilfully use inherent tensions in those images in resisting that control and in struggling to achieve their own personal and economic goals.

When East Meets West

This article seeks to elucidate the intersecting processes of colonialism and nation formation in the subject formation of Hong Kong women. The analysis is drawn from a study of individual Hong Kong women who, from the early 1990s on, have launched development projects in China with a focus on gender. For these Hong Kong women, Mainland women represented both what they considered China to be lacking and what they envisioned a modern Chinese nation to be. By showing how these Hong Kong women inadvertently identified with the British colonial discourse of “East meets West” in representing themselves as liberated subjects uplifting the “oppressed” Mainland women following Hong Kong’s reunification, the article illuminates the different and differentiating effects of colonization on women under colonialism. It also shows how women are not simply objects acted on by the nation but are also subjects engaged in narrating the nation.

Migration, Social Support and Perinatal Health: An Origin-Destination Analysis of Puerto Rican Women

Using pooled origin-destination data from the Puerto Rican Maternal and Infant Health Study, we investigate linkages between migration, social support, and perinatal health. We document differences in social support between three groups of Puerto Rican women: non-migrant women in Puerto Rico, first-generation migrants to the U.S. mainland, and mainland-born women. The role of social support in producing differences in perinatal health outcomes between the groups is assessed. The analysis shows striking differences in social support between island and mainland women, but little systematic variation among mainland women by generation of U.S. residence. The lower level of social support available to mainland women is not reflected in the health outcomes examined, which do not generally worsen with migration to the United States (with the exception of maternal smoking). Nonetheless, we show that social support has important implications for stress, which in turn increases the risk of poor health behavior and compromised infant health.

Inter‐regime marriage and mobility: The case of mainland China and Taiwan

The recent increasing socioeconomic and political interactions between mainland China and Taiwan have resulted in a significant number of marriages between the two societies. Why do people cross the Strait to look for a marriage partner? What are the socioeconomic and demographic characteristics of such marriages? And what impact do these marriages have on society as well as on the individuals involved? These are the issues we explore in this paper. Analyzing a survey on cross‐Strait marriages conducted by the authors, this paper concludes that inter‐regime marriages between these two societies predominately involve older Taiwanese males and younger mainland females. The general pattern in these marriages represents an exchange between the intrinsic attributes (age, appearance) of the mainland women and the extrinsic attributes (financial status) of the Taiwanese men. In addition, inter‐regime marriages provide a means for mainland women to attain geographic and eventually social mobility.

Migration and premarital childbearing among Puerto Rican women

This paper examines the relationship between migration and premarital childbearing in a highly migratory Latino subgroup, Puerto Rican women. Using pooled origin-destination data from surveys conducted in Puerto Rico and in the New York metropolitan area, we find that first- and second-generation migrants to the U.S. mainland face substantially higher risks of conceiving and bearing a first child before marriage than do nonmigrants in Puerto Rico. This pattern is due largely to the relatively early transition to sexual activity among mainland women. Given the negative long-term consequences of premarital childbearing for women and their children, our findings call into question the assumption that migrants necessarily experience only positive outcomes as a result of the assimilation process.