Mainland Chinese Mothers Research Articles

Mainland Chinese Mothers’ Autonomy Support Across Four Caregiving Contexts

Mainland Chinese Mothers’ Autonomy Support Across Four Caregiving Contexts

Reliability and validity of the Chinese version of parenting sense of competence scale in mothers of preschool children

Objective To test the reliability and validity of the Chinese version of parenting sense of competence scale (PSOC) in Chinese mothers of preschool children, and to explore the perception of preschool children's mothers on their own parenting skills and their comfort of being a parent in Yanqing District of Beijing. Methods A cross-sectional survey was conducted using a convenience sample in 1 384 preschool children's mothers in Yanqing District of Beijing. SPSS 21.0 and Mplus 7.4 software were used for statistical analysis to test the structural validity, criterion related validity, internal consistency and split half reliability of the scale, and to analyze the score of the scale and its influencing factors. Results The PSOC had good reliability and validity. Exploratory factor analysis showed that each item of the PSOC had more than 0.4 factor loading in efficacy factor or satisfaction factor, and there was no double load phenomenon. Confirmatory factor analysis showed that the factor loadings ranged from 0.212 to 0.843 in efficacy factor and satisfaction factor, respectively. The goodness of fit test showed that all the fitting indexes were within the acceptable range, and the correlation between the effectiveness subscale and the satisfaction subscale was high. The Cronbach's α coefficient of the whole scale, the efficacy subscale and the satisfaction subscale were 0.872, 0.802, and 0.874, respectively. The Spearman-Brown coefficient of PSOC was 0.851. The average score of the whole scale, the efficacy subscale, and the satisfaction subscale were 72.33±11.31, 35.54±5.91, and 36.79±7.11, respectively, and the score of parenting competence in Chinese mothers of preschool children was influenced by the mother's educational level and the annual income of her family. Conclusion The PSOC has satisfactory reliability and validity in Chinese mothers of preschool children. It can be used as an evaluation instrument for measuring the parenting competency, self perceived efficacy and satisfaction in the mainland Chinese mothers of preschool children. The competency of preschool children's mothers in Yanqing District of Beijing is very good, which may be related to the higher education level of the mothers and the higher annual income of their families in this study.

Malicious and benign maternal envy in Chinese childrearing

Mothers utilize social comparisons to other parents to calibrate evaluations of themselves and their children, and these comparisons might prompt feelings of envy. Envy can either be malicious and destructive, or relatively more benign and constructive. This research examined distinctions between malicious and benign envy among Chinese mothers, differences from related emotions (i.e., resentment and admiration), and themes present in these experiences. An online sample of 152 Mainland Chinese mothers ( Mage = 46.91, SD = 2.26) recalled malicious and benign envy, admiration, and resentment experiences toward other parents and reported associated appraisals, motivations, and action tendencies. Results showed distinctions between malicious and benign maternal envy. Malicious envy included lower perceived control, higher perceived unfairness, and more desire to degrade the other than benign envy. Benevolent feelings toward the envied target characterized benign envy. Both forms of envy were linked to self-improvement motivation. Personal characteristics and achievements of both other parents and other children were prominent themes in mothers’ experiences of various emotions. This research provides insights into how and why Chinese mothers experience different forms of envy, and has implications for research on social comparisons made in parenting contexts.

The inter-generational value of a green card: evidence from the CSPA of 1992

ABSTRACTWe examine the impact of the Chinese Student Protection Act (CSPA) of 1992 on the children of those who likely received Green Cards under the US legislation. Using a differences-in-differences methodology with the American Community Survey from 2001–2017, we find that having immediate access to a Green Card for mainland Chinese mothers had a positive impact on their children, while mainland Chinese fathers’ Green Card eligibility does not affect children’s outcomes. Our findings highlight the importance of mother’s employment and earnings on children’s human capital development. It appears that the CSPA has served to enhance the human capital outcomes of second-generation Chinese immigrants.

Relations of Collectivism Socialization Goals and Training Beliefs to Chinese Parenting

Parenting behaviors may be influenced by multiple factors, including parental values, beliefs, socialization goals, and children’s characteristics (e.g., personality, age). This study examined relations between Chinese mothers’ collectivism socialization goals and “training” beliefs and their parenting styles and behaviors with their children (youth ages 9-17 years), using structural equation modeling (SEM). In addition, in an exploratory manner, the associations between youth’s age and mothers’ parenting styles and behaviors were also explored. In all, 652 youth (female 46.2% and male 52.9%) and their mothers were recruited from urban areas in mainland China. Youth answered questionnaires about their mothers’ parenting (i.e., parenting styles, behavioral control, and psychological control), and mothers reported their endorsement of collectivism socialization goals and “training” beliefs. The findings suggest that Chinese mothers’ endorsement of collectivism socialization goals was positively associated with their authoritarian and authoritative parenting styles and behavioral control, but negatively associated with psychological control. Chinese mothers’ “training” beliefs were negatively associated with the use of behavioral control. Youth age was negatively associated with Chinese mothers’ use of authoritative and authoritarian parenting styles and behavioral control. Therefore, the current study suggests that mothers’ collectivism socialization goals and “training” beliefs and youth age may have an impact on parenting styles and parenting behaviors in mainland Chinese mothers.

The Identity Crisis of post-1997 Hong Kong: An Examination of the Composition and Fluidity of Hong Kong Identity

Hong Kong's history as a former British colony and current Special Administrative Region of China presents a unique case study in the formation of identity. To this day, many residents of Hong Kong do not view themselves as Chinese, that is, part of the People's Republic of China. Rather, surveys conducted by the Chinese University of Hong Kong reveal locals adopt the labels of "Hong Konger in China", "Chinese in Hong Kong" and "Hongkonger". In light of these findings, this study will examine the composition and fluidity of Hong Kong identity.
 This study will first show how Hong Kong fails to meet the criteria for a unified identity with China as outlined by Anthony Smith in National Identity. The study then draws from Agnieszka Joniak-Lüthi's assertion in The Han Minzu, Fragmented Identities and Ethnicity that identities serve a dual purpose: as explanations of events and processes, and also as tokens of social positioning in instances of power distribution. The study proceeds to analyze four situations in which locals in Hong Kong chose to adopt either a Hong Kong identity or a Chinese identity, depending on the benefits and status procured from each identity: a mainland Chinese girl eating noodles on the subway, mainland Chinese mothers giving birth in Hong Kong, the Diaoyu islands dispute, and the 2008 Beijing Olympics. The study confirms that Hong Kong and Chinese identities co-exist among Hong Kong residents. Moreover, the study concludes that Hong Kong identity, despite its ambiguity, is undoubtedly calculated and reasoned.

Maternal intention to exclusively breast feed among mainland Chinese mothers: A cross-sectional study

Objectiveto examine postpartum maternal recall of their intentions to exclusively breast feed among breastfeeding women and identify its predictors. Design and settinga cross-sectional descriptive study was conducted in a regional teaching hospital at Guangzhou, China between April 1 and July 14, 2014. Participants571 mothers who were within four days after delivery were recruited to the study. Measurementsdata were collected by four research assistants with maternal intention to breast feed data sheet, the Network Support for Breastfeeding Scale (NSBS), and a socio-demographic data sheet. Findingsgreater than half of the mothers (69.5%) intended to exclusively breast feed. The logistic regression analysis revealed six variables which predicted postpartum maternal recall of their intentions to exclusively breast feed. They were support from husband, being breast-fed as an infant, previous breast feeding experience, attending antenatal breast feeding class, time of decision to breast feed, and the rating of the importance of my baby's health. Conclusion and implications for practicehealth care professionals could develop strategies to enhance mothers’ intention to exclusively breast feed, such as providing antenatal breast feeding class on internet, a strong focus on the benefits of exclusive breast feeding on the baby's health in the education programme, and more efforts directed toward educating school-aged children and adolescents to modify societal perceptions of what are considered normal infant feeding. Mothers’ husband could be encouraged in supporting exclusive breast feeding.

Predictors of breast feeding self-efficacy in the immediate postpartum period: A cross-sectional study

Objectiveto examine breast feeding self-efficacy and identify its predictors among mainland Chinese mothers in the early postpartum period. Design and settinga cross-sectional descriptive questionnaire survey was conducted in a regional teaching hospital with childbirth rate over 3000 per year at Guangzhou, China from April 1 to July 14, 2014. Participantsa total of 571 Chinese mothers who were within 72–96hours post partum were recruited consecutively to the study. Measurementsdata were collected by the Chinese version of the Breastfeeding Self-efficacy Scale-Short Form (BSES-SF), the Network Support for Breastfeeding Scale (NSBS) and a socio-demographic data sheet. Findingsa total of 640 eligible women was approached and 571 mothers completed the study with the response rate of 89%. Mothers reported moderate level of breast feeding self-efficacy in the immediate postpartum period. The best-fit regression analysis revealed six variables that explained 43.9% of the variance in breast feeding self-efficacy in the immediate postpartum period. They were intention of breast feeding, support from husband, support from nurses/midwives, attending antenatal breast feeding classes, time from childbirth to initiate breast feeding and previous breast feeding experience. Conclusions and implications for practicethis study found six predictors of breast feeding self-efficacy in the immediate postpartum period. In order to increase maternal breast feeding self-efficacy level, a more women-centred approach is recommended. Mothers and fathers should be facilitated to attend antenatal classes on breast feeding. New mother' husband could be encouraged in supporting breast feeding. Nurses and midwives could encourage new mothers to initiate breast feeding as soon as possible. Further work to promote early mother–infant contact post birth, such as via skin to skin contact should also be facilitated where possible.

Variation in the association between socioeconomic status and breastfeeding practices by immigration status in Taiwan: a population based birth cohort study.

BackgroundThe relationship between socioeconomic status (SES) and breastfeeding has been extensively discussed in the literature. However, there is some evidence that this relationship can differ with immigration status. To date the majority of research investigating the relationships among SES, breastfeeding and immigration status has been conducted in Europe and the United States with a lack of similar research from Asia. Therefore, the aim of this study was to describe differences in breastfeeding practices between native-born Taiwanese mothers and immigrant mothers in Taiwan and to investigate any differences in the relationship between SES and breastfeeding practices by immigration status.MethodsData analyzed came from the Taiwan Birth Cohort Study, the first longitudinal study of babies in Taiwan with a nationally representative sample born in 2005. In the present study, we included 21,217 mothers or primary caregivers who completed interview surveys when their child was 6 months old. Socioeconomic status was measured by the education level of mothers and fathers, and the couple’s monthly income. Data analysis involved multiple logistic regression. Control variables included residential area, mother’s employment status, age of the father and mother, and sex of the infant.ResultsThe proportion of immigrant mothers predominantly breastfeeding for 4 and for 6 months (Mainland Chinese mothers: 18.25 %, 36.29 %; Southeast Asian mothers: 10.71 %, 24.85 %) was significantly higher than that observed in their Taiwan-born counterparts (7.03 %, 16.22 %). Analysis stratified by immigration status showed that a higher level of parental education was associated with a greater likelihood of predominantly breastfeeding in Taiwanese mothers. However, no statistically significant relationship was observed between education and predominantly breastfeeding in immigrant mothers. Higher monthly income was also significantly associated with a greater likelihood of predominantly breastfeeding in Taiwanese mothers. However, there was no significant linear relationship between monthly income and predominantly breastfeeding in immigrant women.ConclusionThe relationship between SES and breastfeeding is different in immigrant mothers and native-born Taiwanese mothers. Taiwanese policy should continue to encourage breastfeeding in immigrant mothers. However, greater attention should be placed on Taiwanese mothers from a low SES background.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12884-015-0732-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Effects of Life Stress, Social Support, and Cultural Norms on Parenting Styles Among Mainland Chinese, European Canadian, and Chinese Canadian Immigrant Mothers

The effects of life stress, social support, cultural beliefs, and social norms on parenting styles were examined for mainland Chinese (MC), Chinese Canadian (CC) and European Canadian (EC) mothers of 2- to 6-year-old children. Authoritarian parenting increased with stress and traditional parenting beliefs and decreased with social support. EC mothers used less authoritarian parenting than either CC or MC mothers. This cultural difference was fully mediated by stress. For authoritative parenting, there was a country of residence effect, which was not mediated; MCs were less authoritative than either CCs or ECs. All mothers were more authoritative when less stressed, when they had lower traditional childrearing beliefs, and when they were more individualist. The results suggest the importance of the immediate social environment in influencing these cultural differences.

Recent dramatic increase in the male-to-female sex ratio of babies born in Hong Kong

There is a rapid rise in the male-to-female sex ratio at birth in Hong Kong, which coincides with the influx of Mainland Chinese mothers crossing the border to give birth in Hong Kong. Our objective is to explore the sex ratio patterns among Hong Kong Chinese and Mainland Chinese. Analysis of the statistics from Hong Kong public hospitals from 2003 to 2007. For the 194,602 babies studied, 140,962 (72.4%) were eligible (Hong Kong Chinese) and 52,741 (27.1%) were non-eligible (Mainland Chinese). The overall sex ratio at birth (defined as males per 1000 females) was 1088; 1078 for eligible and 1116 for non-eligible. For eligible persons, the sex ratios were 1060 for parity 0, 1073 for parity 1 and 1184 for parity 2 or above. For non-eligible persons, the sex ratios were 1047 for parity 0, 1149 for parity 1 and 1745 for parity 2 or above. Non-eligible persons of parity 1 or above were more likely to have sons than eligible persons of same parity (P<0.000). We believe that the rapid rise of sex ratio in Hong Kong can be partly explained by the influx of Mainland Chinese who may have practiced sex selection more than Hong Kong Chinese.

Mothers' self-reported emotional expression in Mainland Chinese, Chinese American and European American families

This study compared Mainland Chinese, Chinese American and European American mothers' self-reported emotional expression within the family. Mothers of 3-year-old European American ( n = 40), Chinese American (n = 39) and Mainland Chinese (n = 36) children (n = 20 girls per group) completed the Self-Expressiveness in the Family Questionnaire (SEFQ), a measure that includes 40 items describing the expression of positive and negative emotion (20 items each). Respondents indicate how frequently they engage in each expressive practice. Mothers also completed a questionnaire regarding family ecology variables. European American mothers reported significantly more positive emotional expression than Mainland Chinese mothers, although no significant differences were found for expression of negative emotion. While family ecology differed across groups, these variables were not related to the emotional expression scores. No child-gender differences were obtained. Results of this study confirm the presence of cultural differences in mothers' emotional expressivity.

The Significance of Cross-Border Marriage in a Low Fertility Society: Evidence from Taiwan

Few efforts have been made to explore two emerging demographic features, the extra low fertility of the Taiwanese population, and a rapid increase in cross-border marriages. The objective of this research is to provide comparative estimates of fertility outcomes of marriage immigrants from Mainland China, Southeast Asia, and other countries. Through exploring the 2003 Survey of Foreign and Mainland Chinese Spouses’ Living Conditions, this study gives us a first glimpse of how prevalent cross-border marriages are in Taiwanese society. While the headlines tend to portray an image that only old veterans and minority rural men are likely to marry an immigrant, the findings indeed show that an increased number of Taiwanese men have adopted cross-border marriage as an alternative. The fertility results reveal a singularly important conclusion: the substantial number of babies born to immigrant mothers has made an important contribution to total fertility rates in recent years. Despite an increasing anxiety concerning the quantity of newborns from foreign and Mainland Chinese mothers, this research shows that the average number of children born to a marriage immigrant is still lower than the replacement level. By examining the sex ratios of recent newborns from cross-border marriages, it is evident that some couples may have a strong preference for a son. This unexpected outcome deserves more observation and research from policymakers and researchers.

Perinatal Toxoplasmosis, Northern Taiwan

To the Editor: Toxoplasmosis is caused by a protozoan parasite known as Toxoplasma gondii, which is found in animals worldwide and is readily transmitted to humans. The prevalence of T. gondii–specific immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibodies in women ranges from ≈15% in the United States (1) to ≈55% in Europe (2). Rate of transmission to a fetus in the first, second, and third trimesters is 8%, 25%, and 60%, respectively (3). The rate of congenital toxoplasmosis in the United States is 1–10 per 10,000 live births (4). Most infants infected in utero are born without obvious signs of toxoplasmosis, and learning or visual disabilities do not develop in up to 80% until their second or third decade of life (5,6). In 1985 in Taiwan, the prevalence rates of T. gondii–specific IgG, as determined by ELISA, for pregnant women and their neonates were 10.2% and 11.6%, respectively. No samples from mothers or neonates were screened for IgM titers (7). During the past 20 years, however, the lifestyle, socioeconomic environment, and healthcare system have changed substantially in Taiwan. Overseas traveling has become more convenient, and Taiwan residents often travel to toxoplasmosis-endemic areas. The number of babies born to immigrant mothers has also recently increased in Taiwan. Our objective was to estimate the seroprevalence of perinatally transmitted T. gondii in northern Taiwan. We tested sera collected from consecutive samples of women and their neonates (live births only) at 1 medical center, 1 local hospital, and 2 obstetric clinics in northern Taiwan from April 2004 through January 2005, which was 1 investigation of the Taiwan Birth Panel Study. Informed consent was obtained from either parent before enrollment in the study. Serum samples from cord blood of 483 neonates and paired samples from their mothers were analyzed for T. gondii–specific IgG and IgM titers by ELISA (Diagnostic Products Corporation, Los Angeles, CA, USA) (IgG sensitivity 94%, specificity 100%; IgM sensitivity 96.9%, specificity 91%) (8). Samples from the mothers were tested within 2 days of delivery. Additional data about health measures and conditions were collected by trained interviewers using structured questionnaires. Among the study population, 93% were Taiwanese, 0.6% were Taiwanese aboriginals, 2.5% were mainland Chinese, and 3.9% were immigrants from southeastern Asia. Of the 483 mothers, 0.6% worked as farmers, 76% were 25–35 years of age, >50% had a university-level education, 77.7% encountered pets daily, and 9.7% owned cats. Of the 483 infants, the male:female ratio was 50.8:49.2, delivery was premature for 8.6%, and 5.8% had a low birthweight. For the mothers, the T. gondii–specific IgG prevalence rate was 9.1% (95% confidence interval [CI] 6.5%–11.7%), and 5 mothers (1.0%; 95% CI 0.1%–1.9%) were IgM positive. The T. gondii–specific IgG prevalence rate for the neonates was 9.3% (95% CI 6.7%–11.9%), and 1 neonate (0.2%; 95% CI 0%– 0.6%) was IgM positive (Table). Table Seroprevalence of toxoplasmosis in mothers and their neonates, Taiwan, 2004–2005* We identified 2 risk factors for seropositive mothers: being from mainland People's Republic of China (odds ratio [OR] 13.42; 95% CI 1.29–19.49] and being an agricultural worker (OR 59.53; 95% CI 4.45–79.67). Incidence of positive IgG titers was higher for mothers who owned cats than for mothers who did not own cats, but not significantly higher. The neonates who had positive T. gondii–specific IgM had negative IgM results at the age of 3 months. No significant differences in gestational age, birthweight, and neurodevelopment were identified between seropositive and seronegative groups of infants. This study showed that in northern Taiwan, seroprevalence of T. gondii among pregnant women and neonates remains low and has not substantially changed during the past 20 years. The reason for such a low incidence in Taiwan is not clear but may be attributed to differences in the lifestyle, climate, cultural differences, food habits, and to the lesser consumption of raw meat in Taiwan compared with western countries. We found that the rate for T. gondii–specific IgM is higher for mainland Chinese mothers than for Taiwanese mothers (p<0.05). In Taiwan, the percentage of immigrant mothers increased from 15.7% in 1998 to 32.1% in 2003, and the percentage of neonates born to these mothers increased from 5.1% in 1998 to 13.8% in 2004 (9). Whether the lifestyle of mothers in Taiwan with a different ethnicity will influence future T. gondii seroprevalence require further investigation. This study highlights the emerging importance of toxoplasmosis as a possible perinatal infection in Taiwan. A high index of suspicion for infectious diseases among immigrant mothers is needed (10).

Mainland Chinese parenting styles and parent–child interaction

Parenting styles and mother–child interaction were examined with 97 Mainland Chinese mothers (M age 1/4 29.64 years, SD 1/4 3.64) and their young children (M 1/4 24.30 months, SD 1/4 4.57). Mothers completed questionnaires about their parenting styles, orientation to Chinese cultural values, perceived parenting stress, and sources of social support. The regression analyses showed that mothers’ adherence to Chinese values was associated with both authoritative and authoritarian parenting styles. Other characteristics of the family contexts, such as perceived parenting distress, social support, and years of education, also contributed to Chinese mothers’ parenting styles. Mother–child dysfunctional interaction was associated with mothers’ heightened parenting distress, a lack of perceived social support, and perceptions of children's difficultness. Group comparisons revealed that Chinese mothers who had high scores for both authoritative and authoritarian parenting styles adhered most strongly to the Chinese cultural values. The findings suggest that the aspects of families’ eco-cultural settings such as mothers’ endorsement of Chinese cultural values and perceived parenting stress contribute to their parenting styles and interaction with their children.

European American and Mainland Chinese mothers’ responses to aggression and social withdrawal in preschoolers

The purpose of the present study was to examine European American and Mainland Chinese mothers’ responses to preschoolers’ social behaviours (aggression and social withdrawal) within a cultural framework. Participants were 103 European American mothers from Washington DC, and 100 Mainland Chinese mothers from Beijing and Baoding cities, China. The maternal emotional reactions, causal attributions, socialisation strategies, and socialisation goals that were endorsed in response to these behaviours were targeted. Both groups of mothers reacted with negative emotions to aggression and withdrawal. Consistent with Confucian ideology on child socialisation, Chinese mothers endorsed more external causal attributions, directive socialisation strategies, and child socialisation goals focused on instilling long-term values and group-focused collectivistic ideals. In contrast, European American mothers focused on internal attributions and the more immediate psychological state of the child. The findings were discussed with regard to the importance of distinguishing shy, cautious behaviour from that of the consistent display of social withdrawal among familiar others, and the significance of cultural norms and conventions in the perception and evaluation of social behaviours.

European American and Mainland Chinese Mothers' Socialization Beliefs Regarding Preschoolers' Social Skills

Objective. The purpose of this study was to examine the socialization beliefs (goals, attributions, strategies) of European American and Mainland Chinese mothers regarding preschoolers' social skills (sharing, controlling negative emotions, and helping others) within a cultural framework. Design. Participants were 103 European American mothers from Washington, DC, and 100 Mainland Chinese mothers from Beijing and Baoding cities, China. Mothers' cognitions regarding the socialization of competent skills were assessed. The reasons that mothers provided for the importance of each skill, their causal attributions for the acquisition of those skills, and the socialization strategies that would be most effective were targeted. Results. Findings for the European American mothers were generally consistent with previous research on U.S. mothers' socialization beliefs, whereas the Mainland Chinese mothers' beliefs were related to traditional Chinese ideologies and values in meaningful ways. The Chinese mothers provided more social conventional reasons for the importance of children's skills, made more external causal attributions, and endorsed higher proportions of training and education strategies than the European American mothers. Conclusions. The study highlights the significance of cultural ideologies regarding children and the family in the study of maternal beliefs regarding child socialization.