Main Sequence Of Star-forming Galaxies Research Articles

Molecular gas scaling relations for local star-forming galaxies in the low-M_* regime

We derived molecular gas fractions ($f_ mol =M_ mol /M_*$) and depletion times ($ mol = M_ mol SFR $) for 353 galaxies representative of the local star-forming population with $10^ \,M_ < M_* < \,M_ drawn from the ALLSMOG and xCOLDGASS surveys of CO(2-1) and CO(1-0) line emission. By adding constraints from low-mass galaxies and upper limits for CO non-detections, we find the median molecular gas fraction of the local star-forming population to be constant at $ f_ mol $, challenging previous reports of increased molecular gas fractions in low-mass galaxies. Above $M_* \,M_ we find the $f_ mol $ versus $M_*$ relation to be sensitive to the selection criteria for star-forming galaxies. We tested the robustness of our results against different prescriptions for the CO-to-H$_2$ conversion factor and different selection criteria for star-forming galaxies. The depletion timescale $ mol $ weakly depends on $M_*$, following a power law with a best-fit slope of . This suggests that small variations in specific star formation rate ($ sSFR=SFR /M_*$) across the local main sequence of star-forming galaxies with $M_* < 10^ \,M_ are mainly driven by differences in the efficiency of converting the available molecular gas into stars. We tested these results against a possible dependence of $f_ mol $ and $ mol $ on the surrounding (group) environment of the targets by splitting them into centrals, satellites, and isolated galaxies, and find no significant variation between these populations. We conclude that the group environment is unlikely to have a large systematic effect on the molecular gas content of star-forming galaxies in the local Universe.

TEMPLATES: Characterization of a Merger in the Dusty Lensing SPT0418–47 System

We present JWST and Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) imaging for the lensing system SPT0418−47, which includes a strongly lensed, dusty, star-forming galaxy at redshift z = 4.225 and an associated multiply imaged companion. The JWST NIRCam and MIRI imaging observations presented in this paper were acquired as part of the Early Release Science program Targeting Extremely Magnified Panchromatic Lensed Arcs and Their Extended Star formation (TEMPLATES). This data set provides robust mutiwavelength detections of stellar light in both the main (SPT0418A) and companion (SPT0418B) galaxies, while the ALMA detection of [C ii] emission confirms that SPT0418B lies at the same redshift as SPT0418A. We infer that the projected physical separation of the two galaxies is 4.42 ± 0.05 kpc. We derive total magnifications of μ = 29 ± 1 and μ = 4.1 ± 0.7 for SPT0418A and SPT0418B, respectively. We use both prospector and cigale to derive stellar masses. We find that SPT0418A has a stellar mass of M*=3.4−0.6+1.1×1010M⊙ from prospector or M * = 1.5 ± 0.3 × 1010 M ⊙ from cigale. The stellar mass ratio of SPT0418A and SPT0418B is roughly between 4 and 7 ( 4.2−1.6+1.9 for prospector and 7.5 ± 3.7 for cigale). We see evidence of extended structure associated with SPT0418A that is suggestive of a tidal feature. These features, along with the close projected proximity, imply that the system is interacting. Interestingly, the star formation rates and stellar masses of both galaxies are consistent with the main sequence of star-forming galaxies at this epoch, indicating that this ongoing interaction has not noticeably elevated the star formation levels.

COSMOS2020: Investigating the AGN-obscured accretion phase at z ∼ 1 via [Ne V] selection

The black hole-and-galaxy (BH-galaxy) co-evolution paradigm predicts a phase where most of the star formation (SF) and BH accretion takes place in gas-rich environments, namely, in what are likely to be very obscured conditions. In the first phase of this growth, some of the galactic gas is funnelled toward the centre of the galaxy and is accreted into the supermassive BH, triggering active galactic nucleus (AGN) activity. The large quantity of gas and dust hides the emission and the AGN appears as an obscured (type 2) AGN. The degree of obscuration in type 2 AGNs may even reach values as high as NH > 1024 cm−2 (i.e., Compton-thick, CT). Population synthesis models of the X-ray background (XRB) suggest that a large population of CT-AGN is, in fact, needed to explain the still unresolved XRB emission at energy above 20 keV. In this work, we investigated the properties of 94 [Ne V]3426 Å-selected type 2 AGN in COSMOS at z = 0.6 − 1.2, performing optical-to-far-infrared (FIR) spectral energy distribution (SED) fitting of COSMOS2020 photometric data to estimate the AGN bolometric luminosity and stellar mass, star formation rate, age of the oldest stars, and molecular gas mass for their host-galaxy. In addition, we performed an X-ray spectral analysis of the 36 X-ray-detected sources to obtain reliable values of the AGN obscuration and intrinsic luminosity, as well as to constrain the AGN properties of the X-ray-undetected sources. We found that more than two-thirds of our sample is composed of very obscured sources (NH > 1023 cm−2), with about 20% of the sources being candidate CT-AGN and half being AGNs in a strong phase of accretion (λEdd > 0.1). We built a mass- and redshift-matched control sample and its comparison with the [Ne V] sample indicates that the latter has a higher fraction of sources within the main sequence of star-forming galaxies and shows little evidence for AGNs quenching the SF. As the two samples have similar amounts of cold gas available to fuel the SF, this difference points towards a higher efficiency in forming stars in the [Ne V]-selected sample. The comparison with the prediction from the in situ co-evolution model suggests that [Ne V] is an effective tool for selecting galaxies in the obscured growth phase of the BH-galaxy co-evolution paradigm. We find that the “quenching phase” is still to come for most of the sample and only few galaxies show evidence of quenched SF activity.

Study of the $ 50$ kpc circumgalactic environment around the merger system J2057-0030 at $ z $ sim 4.6 using ALMA

We present ALMA band-7 observations of J2057-0030, a multi-component merger system at $z$ sim 4.68 spanning at least 50 kpc in size, using the C$ ii lambda 157.74 mu m line and underlying far-infrared (FIR) continuum. We find two main components, the quasar (QSO) and a dusty star-forming galaxy (DSFG), both detected in C$ ii and continuum emission as well as multiple neighboring clumps detected only in C$ ii . Three of these clumps form a (tidal) tail that extends from the QSO in a straight direction to the west, covering a projected distance of sim 10 kpc. This perturbed morphology, added to a spatial distance of sim 20 kpc and a velocity offset of $ v $ = 68 km s$^ $ between the QSO and the DSFG, strongly supports a merging scenario. By fitting a spectral energy distribution model to the continuum data, we estimate star formation rates of approx 402 $M_ odot $ yr$^ $ for the QSO host and approx 244 $M_ odot $ yr$^ $ for the DSFG, which locate them on or close to the main sequence of star-forming galaxies. The J2057-0030 QSO was selected for being one of the brightest unobscured quasars at its redshift while presenting a rather modest star formation rate. Based on a commonly accepted paradigm regarding the formation of quasars, this result is expected for a quasar that has already passed an obscured phase of rapid star formation during a major merger. However, we see that the merger event in this system is far from being finished, and it is rather likely somewhere between the first pericenter and subsequent close passages. This is presumably another case of a high-$z$ quasar residing in a high-density environment with a companion obscured galaxy.

MIDIS: JWST NIRCam and MIRI Unveil the Stellar Population Properties of Lyα Emitters and Lyman-break Galaxies at z ≃ 3–7

We study the stellar population properties of 182 spectroscopically confirmed (MUSE/VLT) Lyα emitters (LAEs) and 450 photometrically selected Lyman-break galaxies (LBGs) at z = 2.8–6.7 in the Hubble Extreme Deep Field. Leveraging the combined power of Hubble Space Telescope and JWST NIRCam and MIRI observations, we analyze their rest-frame UV-through-near-IR spectral energy distributions, with MIRI playing a crucial role in robustly assessing the LAEs’ stellar masses and ages. Our LAEs are low-mass objects (log10(M⋆/M⊙)≃7.5) with little or no dust extinction (E(B − V) ≃ 0.1) and a blue UV continuum slope (β ≃ −2.2). While 75% of our LAEs are young (<100 Myr), the remaining 25% have significantly older stellar populations (≥100 Myr). These old LAEs are statistically more massive, less extinct, and have lower specific star formation rate than young LAEs. Besides, they populate the plane of M ⋆ versus star formation rate along the main sequence of star-forming galaxies, while young LAEs populate the starburst region. The comparison between the LAEs’ properties and those of a stellar-mass-matched sample of LBGs shows no statistical difference between these objects, except for the LBGs’ redder UV continuum slope and marginally larger E(B − V) values. Interestingly, 48% of the LBGs have ages <10 Myr and are classified as starbursts, but lack detectable Lyα emission. This is likely due to H i resonant scattering and/or dust-selective extinction. Overall, we find that JWST observations are crucial in determining the properties of LAEs and shedding light on their comparison with LBGs.

Almost Optically Dark Galaxies in DECaLS (I): Detection, Optical Properties, and Possible Origins

We report the discovery of eight optical counterparts of ALFALFA extragalactic objects from DECaLS, five of which are discovered for the first time. These objects were flagged as H i emission sources with no optical counterparts in SDSS before. Multiband data reveal their unusual physical properties. They are faint and blue (g − r = −0.35 ∼ 0.55), with quite low surface brightness ( μg,peak=24.88∼26.41mag/arcsec2 ), irregular morphologies, low stellar masses ( log10(M*/M⊙)=5.27∼7.15 ), low star formation rates (SFR = 0.21 ∼ 9.24 × 10−3 M ⊙ yr−1), and remarkably high H i-to-stellar mass ratios ( log10(MHI/M*)=1.72∼3.22 , except AGC 215415). They deviate from the scaling relations between H i and optical properties defined by the ALFALFA sample and the baryonic Tully–Fisher relation. They agree well with the main sequence of star-forming galaxies but exhibit low star-forming efficiency. Based on their physical properties and environments, we speculate that six of these objects may have originated from tidal processes, while the remaining two appear to have isolated origins. They may have had a relatively calm evolutionary history and only begun to form stars recently.

Z-GAL: A NOEMA spectroscopic redshift survey of bright Herschel galaxies

The z-GAL survey observed 137 bright Herschel-selected targets with the IRAM Northern Extended Millimeter Array, with the aim to measure their redshift and study their properties. Several of them have been resolved into multiple sources. Consequently, robust spectroscopic redshifts have been measured for 165 individual galaxies in the range 0.8 &lt; z &lt; 6.5. In this paper we analyse the millimetre spectra of the z-GAL sources, using both their continuum and line emission to derive their physical properties. At least two spectral lines are detected for each source, including transitions of 12CO, [CI], and H2O. The observed 12CO line ratios and spectral line energy distributions of individual sources resemble those of local starbursts. In seven sources the para-H2O (211−202) transition is detected and follows the IR versus H2O luminosity relation of sub-millimetre galaxies. The molecular gas mass of the z-GAL sources is derived from their 12CO, [CI], and sub-millimetre dust continuum emission. The three tracers lead to consistent results, with the dust continuum showing the largest scatter when compared to 12CO. The gas-to-dust mass ratio of these sources was computed by combining the information derived from 12CO and the dust continuum and has a median value of 107, similar to star-forming galaxies of near-solar metallicity. The same combined analysis leads to depletion timescales in the range between 0.1 and 1.0 Gyr, which place the z-GAL sources between the ‘main sequence’ of star formation and the locus of starbursts. Finally, we derived a first estimate of stellar masses – modulo possible gravitational magnification – by inverting known gas scaling relations: the z-GAL sample is confirmed to be mostly composed by starbursts, whereas ∼25% of its members lie on the main sequence of star-forming galaxies (within ±0.5 dex).

ALMA Lensing Cluster Survey: average dust, gas, and star-formation properties of cluster and field galaxies from stacking analysis

ABSTRACT We develop new tools for continuum and spectral stacking of Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) data, and apply these to the ALMA Lensing Cluster Survey. We derive average dust masses, gas masses, and star-formation rates (SFRs) from the stacked observed 260-GHz continuum of 3402 individually undetected star-forming galaxies, of which 1450 are cluster galaxies and 1952 field galaxies, over three redshift and stellar mass bins (over z = 0–1.6 and log$M_{*} \, [{\rm M}_{\odot }] = 8$–11.7), and derive the average molecular gas content by stacking the emission line spectra in a SFR-selected subsample. The average SFRs and specific SFRs of both cluster and field galaxies are lower than those expected for main-sequence (MS) star-forming galaxies, and only galaxies with stellar mass of log$M_{*} \, [{\rm M}_{\odot }] = 9.35$–10.6 show dust and gas fractions comparable with those in the MS. The ALMA-traced average ‘highly obscured’ SFRs are typically lower than the SFRs observed from optical to near-infrared spectral analysis. Cluster and field galaxies show similar trends in their contents of dust and gas, even when field galaxies were brighter in the stacked maps. From spectral stacking we find a potential CO (J = 4 → 3) line emission (signal-to-noise ratio being ∼4) when stacking cluster and field galaxies with the highest SFRs.

Excitation and Ionization Properties of Star-forming Galaxies at z = 2.0–9.3 with JWST/NIRSpec

We utilize medium-resolution JWST/NIRSpec observations of 164 galaxies at z = 2.0–9.3 from the Cosmic Evolution Early Release Science (CEERS) survey to investigate the evolution of the excitation and ionization properties of galaxies at high redshifts. Our results represent the first statistical constraints on the evolution of the [O III]/Hβ versus [N II]/Hα, [S II]/Hα, and [O I]/Hα “BPT” diagrams at z > 2.7, and the first analysis of the O32 versus R23 diagram at z > 4 with a large sample. We divide the sample into five redshift bins containing 30–40 galaxies each. The subsamples at z ∼ 2.3, z ∼ 3.3, and z ∼ 4.5 are representative of the main-sequence star-forming galaxy population at these redshifts, while the z ∼ 5.6 and z ∼ 7.5 samples are likely biased toward high specific star formation rate, due to selection effects. Using composite spectra, we find that each subsample at z = 2.0–6.5 falls on the same excitation sequence in the [N II] and [S II] BPT diagrams and the O32–R23 diagram on average, and is offset from the sequences followed by z = 0 H II regions in the same diagrams. The direction of these offsets are consistent with high-redshift star-forming galaxies uniformly having harder ionizing spectra than typical local galaxies at fixed nebular metallicity. The similarity of the average line ratios suggests that the ionization conditions of the interstellar medium do not strongly evolve between z ∼ 2 and z ∼ 6. Overall, the rest-optical line ratios suggest the z = 2.7–9.3 CEERS/NIRSpec galaxies at log(M */M ⊙) ∼ 7.5–10 have high degrees of ionization and moderately low oxygen abundances (∼0.1–0.3 Z ⊙), but are not extremely metal-poor (<0.1 Z ⊙) even at z > 6.5.

Classifying the full SDSS-IV MaNGA Survey using optical diagnostic diagrams: Presentation of AGN catalogs in flexible apertures

Accurate active galactic nucleus (AGN) identifications in large galaxy samples are crucial for the assessment of the role of AGN and AGN feedback in the co-evolution of galaxies and their central supermassive black holes. Emission-line flux-ratio diagnostics are commonly used to identify AGN in optical spectra. New large samples of integral field unit observations allow exploration of the role of aperture size in the classification process. In this paper, we present galaxy classifications for all 10010 galaxies observed within the Mapping Nearby Galaxies at Apache Point Observatory (MaNGA) survey. We use Baldwin-Philips-Terlevich line flux-ratio diagnostics combined with an Hα equivalent threshold in 60 apertures of varying size for the classification, and provide the corresponding catalogs. MaNGA-selected AGN primarily lie below the main sequence of star-forming galaxies, and reside in massive galaxies with stellar masses of ~1011 M⊙ and a median Hα-derived star formation rate of ~1.44M⊙ yr−1. We find that the number of “fake” AGN increases significantly beyond selection apertures of &gt;1.0 Reff because of increased contamination from diffuse ionized gas (DIG). A comparison with previous works shows that the treatment of the underlying stellar continuum and flux measurements can significantly impact galaxy classification. Our work provides the community with AGN catalogs and galaxy classifications for the full MaNGA survey.

Molecular gas content and high excitation of a massive main-sequence galaxy at z = 3

We present new CO (J = 5 − 4 and 7 − 6) and [C I] (3P2−3P1 and 3P1−3P0) emission line observations of the star-forming galaxy D49 at the massive end of the main sequence at z = 3. We incorporate previous CO (J = 3 − 2) and optical-to-millimetre continuum observations to fit its spectral energy distribution. Our results hint at high-J CO luminosities exceeding the expected location on the empirical correlations with the infrared luminosity. [CI] emission fully consistent with the literature trends is found. We do not retrieve any signatures of a bright active galactic nucleus that could boost the J = 5 − 4, 7 − 6 lines in either the infrared or X-ray bands, but warm photon-dominated regions, shocks, or turbulence could in principle do so. We suggest that mechanical heating could be a favourable mechanism able to enhance the gas emission at fixed infrared luminosity in D49 and other main-sequence star-forming galaxies at high redshift, but further investigation is necessary to confirm this explanation. We derive molecular gas masses from dust, CO, and [C I] that all agree within the uncertainties. Given its high star formation rate ∼500 M⊙ yr−1 and stellar mass &gt; 1011.5 M⊙, the short depletion timescale of &lt; 0.3 Gyr might indicate that D49 is experiencing its last growth spurt and will soon transit to quiescence.

ALMA hints at the presence of turbulent disk galaxies at z &gt; 5

Context. High-redshift galaxies are expected to be more turbulent than local galaxies because of their smaller size and higher star formation and thus stronger feedback from star formation, frequent mergers events, and gravitational instabilities. However, this scenario has recently been questioned by the observational evidence of a few galaxies at z ∼ 4 − 5 with a gas velocity dispersion similar to what is observed in the local population. Aims. Our goal is to determine whether galaxies in the first billion years of the Universe have already formed a dynamically cold rotating disk similar to the local counterparts. Methods. We studied the gas kinematic of 22 main-sequence star-forming galaxies at z &gt; 5 and determined their dynamical state by estimating the ratio of the rotational velocity and of the gas velocity dispersion. We mined the ALMA public archive and exploited the [C II] and [O III] observations to perform a kinematic analysis of the cold and warm gas of z &gt; 5 main-sequence galaxies. We compared our results with what was found in the local and distant Universe and investigated the evolution of the gas velocity dispersion with redshift. We also compared the observations with theoretical expectations to assess the main driver of the gas turbulence at z &gt; 5. Results. The gas kinematics of the high-z galaxy population observed with ALMA is consistent within the errors with rotating but turbulent disks. We indeed infer a velocity dispersion that is systematically higher by 4–5 times than the local galaxy population and the z ∼ 5 dust-obscured galaxies reported in the literature. The difference between our results and those reported at similar redshift can be ascribed to the systematic difference in the galaxy properties in the two samples: the disks of massive dusty galaxies are dynamically colder than the disks of dust-poor galaxies. The comparison with the theoretical predictions suggests that the main driver of the velocity dispersion in high-redshift galaxies is the gravitational energy that is released by the transport of mass within the disk. Finally, we stress that future deeper ALMA high-angular resolution observations are crucial to constrain the kinematic properties of high-z galaxies and to distinguish rotating disks from kiloparsec-scale mergers.

Unveiling hidden active nuclei in MaNGA star-forming galaxies with He ii λ4686 line emission

ABSTRACT Nebular He ii λ4686 Å line emission is useful to unveil active galactic nuclei (AGN) residing in actively star-forming (SF) galaxies, typically missed by the standard BPT classification. Here, we adopt the He ii diagnostic to identify hidden AGN in the Local Universe using for the first time spatially resolved data from the Data Release 15 of the Mapping Nearby Galaxies at APO survey (MaNGA DR15). By combining results from He ii and BPT diagnostics, we overall select 459 AGN host candidates (∼10 per cent in MaNGA DR15), out of which 27 are identified as AGN by the He ii diagram only. The He ii-only AGN population is hosted by massive (M* ≳ 1010 M⊙) SF Main Sequence galaxies and on average less luminous than the BPT-selected AGN. Given the He ii line faintness, we revisit our census accounting for incompleteness effects due to the He ii sensitivity limit of MaNGA. We thus obtain an overall increased fraction (11 per cent) of AGN in MaNGA compared to the BPT-only census (9 per cent), which further increases to 14 per cent for galaxies more massive than 1010 M⊙; interestingly, on the SF Main Sequence the increase is by about a factor of 2. A substantial number of AGN in SF galaxies points to significant, coeval star formation and black hole accretion, consistently with results from hydrodynamical simulations and with important implications on quenching scenarios. In view of exploring unprecedented high redshifts with JWST and new ground-based facilities, revisiting the standard BPT classification through novel emission-line diagnostics is fundamental to discover AGN in highly SF environments.

ALMA Resolves the First Strongly Lensed Optical/Near-IR-dark Galaxy

We present high-resolution (≲0.″1) Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array observations of the strongly lensed galaxy HATLASJ113526.2-01460 at redshift z ∼ 3.1, discovered in the GAMA 12th field of the Herschel-ATLAS survey. This gravitationally lensed system is remarkably peculiar, in that neither the background source nor the foreground lens show a clearly detected optical/near-IR Hubble Space Telescope-J band emission. We perform accurate lens modeling and source morphology reconstruction in three different (sub)millimeter continuum bands and in the C[ii] and CO(8−7) spectral lines. The modeling indicates a foreground lensing (likely elliptical) galaxy with mass ≳1011 M ⊙ at z ≳ 1.5, while the source (sub)millimeter continuum and line emissions are amplified by factors μ ∼ 6–13. We estimate extremely compact sizes—≲0.5 kpc for the star-forming region and ≲1 kpc for the gas component—with no clear evidence of rotation or ongoing merging events. We perform broadband SED fitting and retrieve the intrinsic demagnified physical properties of the source, which is found to feature a very high star formation rate, ≳103 M ⊙ yr−1, which, given the compact sizes, is on the verge of the Eddington limit for starbursts; the radio luminosity at 6 cm from the available EVLA observations is consistent with star formation activity. The galaxy is found to be extremely rich in gas ∼1011 M ⊙ and dust ≳109 M ⊙. The stellar content ≲1011 M ⊙ places the source well above the main sequence of star-forming galaxies, indicating that the starburst is rather young, with an estimated age ∼108 yr. Our results indicate that the overall properties of HATLASJ113526.2-01460 are consistently explained by in situ galaxy formation and evolution scenarios.

Shaken, but not expelled: Gentle baryonic feedback from nearby starburst dwarf galaxies

Baryonic feedback is expected to play a key role in regulating the star formation of low-mass galaxies by producing galaxy-scale winds associated with mass-loading factors of β ∼ 1 − 50. We test this prediction using a sample of 19 nearby systems with stellar masses of 107 &lt; M⋆/M⊙ &lt; 1010, mostly lying above the main sequence of star-forming galaxies. We used MUSE at VLT optical integral field spectroscopy to study the warm ionised gas kinematics of these galaxies via a detailed modelling of their Hα emission line. The ionised gas is characterised by irregular velocity fields, indicating the presence of non-circular motions of a few tens of km s−1 within galaxy discs, but with intrinsic velocity dispersion of 40 − 60 km s−1 that are only marginally larger than those measured in main-sequence galaxies. Galactic winds, defined as gas at velocities larger than the galaxy escape speed, encompass only a few percent of the observed fluxes. Mass outflow rates and loading factors are strongly dependent on M⋆, the star formation rate (SFR), SFR surface density, and specific SFR (sSFR). For M⋆ of 108 M⊙ we find β ≃ 0.02, which is more than two orders of magnitude smaller than the values predicted by theoretical models of galaxy evolution. In our galaxy sample, baryonic feedback stimulates a gentle gas cycle rather than causing a large-scale blow-out.

CO Emission, Molecular Gas, and Metallicity in Main-sequence Star-forming Galaxies at z ∼ 2.3* *The data presented herein were obtained at the W. M. Keck Observatory, which is operated as a scientific partnership among the California Institute of Technology, the University of California, and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The Observatory was made possible by the generous financial support

We present observations of CO(3−2) in 13 main-sequence z = 2.0–2.5 star-forming galaxies at that span a wide range in metallicity (O/H) based on rest-optical spectroscopy. We find that /SFR decreases with decreasing metallicity, implying that the CO luminosity per unit gas mass is lower in low-metallicity galaxies at z ∼ 2. We constrain the CO-to-H2 conversion factor (α CO) and find that α CO inversely correlates with metallicity at z ∼ 2. We derive molecular gas masses (M mol) and characterize the relations among M *, SFR, M mol, and metallicity. At z ∼ 2, M mol increases and the molecular gas fraction (M mol/M *) decreases with increasing M *, with a significant secondary dependence on SFR. Galaxies at z ∼ 2 lie on a near-linear molecular KS law that is well-described by a constant depletion time of 700 Myr. We find that the scatter about the mean SFR−M *, O/H−M *, and M mol−M * relations is correlated such that, at fixed M *, z ∼ 2 galaxies with larger M mol have higher SFR and lower O/H. We thus confirm the existence of a fundamental metallicity relation at z ∼ 2, where O/H is inversely correlated with both SFR and M mol at fixed M *. These results suggest that the scatter of the z ∼ 2 star-forming main sequence, mass–metallicity relation, and M mol–M * relation are primarily driven by stochastic variations in gas inflow rates. We place constraints on the mass loading of galactic outflows and perform a metal budget analysis, finding that massive z ∼ 2 star-forming galaxies retain only 30% of metals produced, implying that a large mass of metals resides in the circumgalactic medium.

An ∼600 pc View of the Strongly Lensed, Massive Main-sequence Galaxy J0901: A Baryon-dominated, Thick Turbulent Rotating Disk with a Clumpy Cold Gas Ring at z = 2.259

We present a high-resolution kinematic study of the massive main-sequence star-forming galaxy (SFG) SDSS J090122.37+181432.3 (J0901) at z = 2.259, using ∼0.″36 Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array CO(3–2) and ∼0.″1–0.″5 SINFONI/VLT Hα observations. J0901 is a rare, strongly lensed but otherwise normal massive () main-sequence SFG, offering a unique opportunity to study a typical massive SFG under the microscope of lensing. Through forward dynamical modeling incorporating lensing deflection, we fit the CO and Hα kinematics in the image plane out to about one disk effective radius (R e ∼ 4 kpc) at an ∼600 pc delensed physical resolution along the kinematic major axis. Our results show high intrinsic dispersions of the cold molecular and warm ionized gas (σ 0,mol. ∼ 40 km s−1 and σ 0,ion. ∼ 66 km s−1) that remain constant out to R e; a moderately low dark matter fraction (f DM ∼ 0.3–0.4) within R e; and a centrally peaked Toomre Q parameter—agreeing well with the previously established σ 0 versus z, f DM versus Σbaryon, and Q's radial trends using large-sample non-lensed main-sequence SFGs. Our data further reveal a high stellar mass concentration within ∼1–2 kpc with little molecular gas, and a clumpy molecular gas ring-like structure at R ∼ 2–4 kpc, in line with the inside-out quenching scenario. Our further analysis indicates that J0901 had assembled half of its stellar mass only ∼400 Myr before its observed cosmic time, and the cold gas ring and dense central stellar component are consistent with signposts of a recent wet compaction event of a highly turbulent disk found in recent simulations.

The main sequence of star-forming galaxies across cosmic times

ABSTRACT By compiling a comprehensive census of literature studies, we investigate the evolution of the main sequence (MS) of star-forming galaxies (SFGs) in the widest range of redshift (0 &amp;lt; z &amp;lt; 6) and stellar mass (108.5–1011.5 M⊙) ever probed. We convert all observations to a common calibration and find a remarkable consensus on the variation of the MS shape and normalization across cosmic time. The relation exhibits a curvature towards the high stellar masses at all redshifts. The best functional form is governed by two parameters: the evolution of the normalization and the turnover mass (M0(t)), which both evolve as a power law of the Universe age. The turn-over mass determines the MS shape. It marginally evolves with time, making the MS slightly steeper towards z ∼ 4–6. At stellar masses below M0(t), SFGs have a constant specific SFR (sSFR), while above M0(t) the sSFR is suppressed. We find that the MS is dominated by central galaxies. This allows to turn M0(t) into the corresponding host halo mass. This evolves as the halo mass threshold between cold and hot accretion regimes, as predicted by the theory of accretion, where the central galaxy is fed or starved of cold gas supply, respectively. We, thus, argue that the progressive MS bending as a function of the Universe age is caused by the lower availability of cold gas in haloes entering the hot accretion phase, in addition to black hole feedback. We also find qualitatively the same trend in the largest sample of star-forming galaxies provided by the IllustrisTNG simulation. Nevertheless, we still note large quantitative discrepancies with respect to observations, in particular at the high-mass end. These can not be easily ascribed to biases or systematics in the observed SFRs and the derived MS.

Deciphering the radio–star formation correlation on kpc scales

Given the multiple energy-loss mechanisms of cosmic-ray (CR) electrons in galaxies, the tightness of the infrared (IR)–radio continuum correlation is surprising. As the radio continuum emission at GHz frequencies is optically thin, this offers the opportunity to obtain unbiased star formation rates (SFRs) from radio-continuum flux-density measurements. The calorimeter theory can naturally explain the tightness of the far-infrared (FIR)–radio correlation but makes predictions that do not agree with observations. Noncalorimeter models often have to involve a conspiracy to maintain the tightness of the FIR–radio correlation. We extended a published analytical model of galactic disks by including a simplified prescription for the synchrotron emissivity. The galactic gas disks of local spiral galaxies, low-z starburst galaxies, high-z main sequence star-forming galaxies, and high-z starburst galaxies are treated as turbulent clumpy accretion disks. The magnetic field strength is determined by the equipartition between the turbulent kinetic and the magnetic energy densities. Our fiducial model, which includes neither galactic winds nor CR electron secondaries, reproduces the observed radio continuum spectral energy distributions of most (∼70%) of the galaxies. Except for the local spiral galaxies, fast galactic winds can potentially make the conflicting models agree with observations. The observed IR–radio correlations are reproduced by the model within 2σ of the joint uncertainty of model and data for all datasets. The model agrees with the observed SFR–radio correlations within ∼4σ. Energy equipartition between the CR particles and the magnetic field only approximately holds in our models of main sequence star-forming galaxies. If a CR electron calorimeter is assumed, the slope of the IR–radio correlation flattens significantly. Inverse Compton losses are not dominant in the starburst galaxies because in these galaxies not only the gas density but also the turbulent velocity dispersion is higher than in normal star-forming galaxies. Equipartition between the turbulent kinetic and magnetic field energy densities then leads to very high magnetic field strengths and very short synchrotron timescales. The exponents of our model SFR–radio correlations at 150 MHz and 1.4 GHz are very close to one.

Morpho-kinematics of MACS J0416.1-2403 low-mass galaxies

We use optical integral field spectroscopy from VLT/MUSE, as well as photometric observations from Hubble Space Telescope and VLT/HAWK-I, to study the morpho-kinematics of 17 low-mass (log(M/M⊙) &lt; 9.5) MACS J0416.1-2403 cluster galaxies at R200 and five field galaxies with a redshift of z ∼ 0.4. By measuring fluxes of strong emission lines from the MUSE data, we have recovered the star formation rates, gas-phase metallicities, and spatially resolved gas kinematics, and we have also investigated the ionising mechanisms. We have analysed the structure and morphology of the galaxies from the optical and infrared photometric data, performing a multi-component decomposition into a bulge and a disk. The spatially resolved gas velocity fields of the cluster members and field galaxies were modelled using a 3D approach, which allowed us to retrieve their intrinsic gas kinematics, including the maximum rotation velocity and velocity dispersion. This enabled us to study scaling relations such as the Tully–Fisher and the stellar mass–S0.5 relation for low-mass galaxies in different environments and to search for signatures of cluster-specific processes using disturbed gas velocity fields as tracers. Most galaxies from our sample fall in the star-forming and composite region in the diagnostic diagram, which allows for the ionising sources in a galaxy to be disentangled. The cluster and field population can be classified as star-forming main-sequence galaxies, with only a sub-sample of four quenched systems. We observe significant scatter for the cluster galaxies in the mass-metallicity plane, and the lowest-mass systems deviate from the predictions of the fundamental metallicity relation, showing higher metallicities, whereas the higher-mass ones are in accordance with the model predictions. This might hint at the cutoff of pristine gas inflow and/or the removal of the hot halo gas as the mechanisms driving these offsets. Our morpho-kinematic analysis reveals a sub-sample of dwarfs with maximum velocities vmax &lt; 50 km s−1 and vmax, gas/σgas &lt; 1, which depart from the Tully–Fisher relation. This might indicate that their interstellar medium is affected by external environmental processes, such as ram pressure stripping. However, ∼30% of the cluster galaxies have rotation-dominated gas disks and follow the Tully–Fisher relation within 1σ. Using the S0.5 parameter, which links the dynamical support of ordered motions with that of random motions, we can differentiate between galaxies affected by gravitational processes and systems affected by hydrodynamical ones. In the stellar mass–S0.5 plane, both cluster and field galaxies follow a tight sequence, with only a sub-population of five galaxies strongly departing (&gt; 4σ) from this relation, showing high σgas values. Both the morphology and kinematics of the outlier galaxies hint at a combination of pre-processing and cluster-specific interactions affecting their stellar and gas disks.