Maillard Reaction Rate Research Articles

A kinetic study on the effect of hyperbaric storage on the development of Maillard reaction in glucose-glycine model systems

The effect of pressure (0.1, 15, 50 and 100 MPa) and temperature (43, 53, 63 °C) on the formation rate (k) of Maillard α-dicarbonyls (absorbance at 294) and melanoidins (absorbance at 420 nm), was studied during hyperbaric storage (HS) of glucose-glycine model solutions (pH 6).While increasing storage temperature increased k values according to the Arrhenius equation (Ea ~ 85 kJ mol−1), increasing pressure decreased reaction rates as predicted by the Eyring model (Va ~ 11 mL mol−1). Pressure did not affect reaction temperature sensitivity, indicating no significant mechanism changes under hyperbaric conditions. A combined model predicting the effect of concomitant changes of temperature and pressure on Maillard reaction rate was implemented and validated within and outside (20–25 °C, 20–200 MPa) its building range.Results indicate HS to limit Maillard browning in food, with possible practical applications, and the potential to develop predictive models based on temperature-accelerated HS trials. Industrial relevanceThe capability of hyperbaric storage to impair Maillard reaction rate extends the scope of this multi-tasking technology to the prevention of color alterations due to non-enzymatic browning. The latter is expected to be of industrial relevance in the case of perishable foods affected by this phenomenon, such as thermally-treated milk. In these matrices, the technology could concomitantly guarantee microbiological safety, protein functionalization, and Maillard browning impairment.

Proposal for Enhancing the Taste and Nutritional Value of Braised Fish

Braised fish, a highly popular Chinese dish known for its delectable taste and rich nutritional content, is prone to being affected by factors such as its inherent fishy taste. To elevate the dish's flavor profile and impart a delightful aroma, it becomes essential to mask the fishy taste effectively. This study compared the salt solution method, sensory masking method, biological method, and acid-base method to comprehensively analyze and address the underlying causes of the fishy taste. It was observed that both the salt solution method and sensory masking method proved successful in concealing the fishy smell. While the biological method effectively mitigated the production of fishy substances, it fell short in completely eliminating the fishy smell. On the other hand, the acid-base method demonstrated promising results in significantly reducing the fishy odor. Furthermore, manipulating the Maillard reaction's efficiency by controlling water activity and temperature through the use of the control variable method was studied. The highest Maillard reaction rate was achieved when the water activity was set at 0.7, and a neutral or weak base pH was maintained. Optimizing temperature and processing time led to the successful formation of aromatic compounds while minimizing damage to human cells. In addition to enhancing the taste, incorporating vegetables such as tofu, broad beans, or celery into braised fish recipes can offer additional health benefits, such as preventing obesity and reducing the presence of carcinogens.

Influence of sodium bicarbonate and moisture content on physicochemical properties of chicken-based extrudate by twin-screw extruder

Food extrusion is mostly used for cereal processing. It is necessary to seek a novel technology to develop meat-based extrudates. This study investigated the physicochemical properties of extrudates consisting of 50% chicken and 50% Indica rice flour with different addition of NaHCO3 (0%, 0.25%, 0.50%) and moisture (12%, 14%, 16%). The largest expansion ratio occurred by 0.25% NaHCO3 addition. In the same moisture, the water solubility index increased first and then decreased, while the water absorption index increased with the increase of NaHCO3. With the increase of moisture, the hardness and crispiness of extrudates generally decreased regardless of the addition of NaHCO3. Importantly, at 14% moisture content, with NaHCO3 addition increasing, a more refined cellular structure occurred, sulfide compounds enhanced and the rate of Maillard reaction increased. Summarily, 0.25% NaHCO3 addition with 14% moisture content to assist extrusion had a tremendous potential to improve the quality of chicken-based extrudates.

Effects of ultrasound-assisted heating on aroma profile, peptide structure, peptide molecular weight, antioxidant activities and sensory characteristics of natural fish flavouring.

This study deals with the production of natural fish flavouring using ultrasound-assisted heating process. The effect of ultrasound pretreatment at different amplitudes (0, 15, 30, and 45%) on the Maillard reaction rate, antioxidant activities, flavour profile, and sensory characteristics of fish flavouring was investigated. Results showed that sonication markedly accelerated the Maillard reaction (MR) rate, as evidenced by the modification of peptide structure, a decrease in pH value, free amino acid content coupled with a rise in browning intensity. Also, ultrasound pretreatment significantly enhanced the antioxidant activities of fish flavouring (p≤0.05). Moreover, sonication increased the type and content of aroma compounds significantly. Sensory analysis revealed that ultrasound pretreatment increased the fish-like and toasty aroma as well as umami and mouthfulness attributes coupled with the reduction of the bitter taste of the fish flavouring. This result was consistent with the GC-MS, electronic nose, cluster, and Partial Least Squares Regression (PLSR) analyses, which clearly showed that ultrasound pretreatment enhanced the fish-like aroma, which was associated with the increase in aldehydes, ketones, alcohols, thiophenes, pyrazine, and furans contents. Thus, it could be concluded that ultrasound pretreatment, coupled with the thermal process, could be a promising process for the production of natural fish flavouring with higher antioxidant activities.

Effects of ultrasonic treatment on Maillard reaction and product characteristics of enzymatic hydrolysate derived from mussel meat

AbstractMussel meat is rich in amino acids and is a good source of flavor enhancers. To find a high‐efficiency and suitable method for the Maillard reaction (MR) of enzymatic hydrolysate derived from mussel meat, we studied the changes of Maillard reaction between enzymatic hydrolysate and glucose/xylose under ultrasonic treatment (UsT), heat treatment (HT) and ultrasonic‐assisted heat treatment (Us‐HT). It was found the Us‐HT displayed the highest Maillard reaction rate and a significant increase in intermediate products and melanoidins compared to HT and UsT. The Maillard reaction products (MRPs) derived from the three treatments showed higher antioxidant activity, while the MRPs from Us‐HT had the highest antioxidant activity and ideal sensory properties. Therefore, Us‐HT is a potential method to prepare the Maillard flavor enhancer from mussel meat.Practical ApplicationsThe ultrasonic technology was applied as a novel food processing technique and can effectively promote the interaction of certain ingredients. Compared with single ultrasonic or heat treatment, ultrasonic‐assisted heat treatment can accelerate the reaction and improve sensory properties and antioxidant activities of MRPs derived from mussel meat hydrolysate. The ultrasonic‐assisted heat treatment is a potential technology for preparing the Maillard flavor enhancer. This efficient method supports the utilization of mussel meat and the development of flavoring essence and functional foods in the future.

Non-enzymatic browning kinetics in sucrose-glycine aqueous and dehydrated model systems in presence of MgCl2

The development of non-enzymatic browning in the presence of MgCl2 was evaluated in liquid and dehydrated sucrose-glycine model systems, in relation to interactions of the salt with water and/or with sucrose. In both systems, browning was accelerated by the presence of MgCl2 because of the increased sugar hydrolysis (ten times faster) and the reduction of water mobility (1H NMR T2 relaxation times) caused by this salt (between 6 and 14% lower), counteracting the inhibitory effect of water on the Maillard reaction. MgCl2 also provoked a 40% reduction on the fluorophores quantum yield, responsible also of the fluctuations observed in the fluorescence development as a function of time after 50 h at 70 °C. Molecular and supramolecular effects of the presence of MgCl2 have been observed on the Maillard reaction kinetics. These results are of high technological interest when strategies to control the Maillard reaction rate are required for a particular application.

Physicochemical Changes and Glycation Reaction in Intermediate-Moisture Protein-Sugar Foods with and without Addition of Resveratrol during Storage.

An intermediate-moisture food (IMF) model consisting of whey protein isolate and glucose and an IMF model fortified with resveratrol were used to study the effect of resveratrol on physicochemical changes and glycation of protein-sugar-rich foods during storage. The water activity (aw) of the storage was controlled at 0.75 or 0.56. The browning rate or hardness of fortified IMFs was significantly lower than that of IMFs after 45-day storage. The rate of Maillard reaction in the samples stored at aw 0.56 was higher than that of samples stored at aw 0.75. The fortified IMFs had lower levels of AGEs (advanced glycation end products), CML (N(ε)-(carboxymethyl)-l-lysine), and insoluble protein during storage. The inhibition capability of resveratrol against glycation was also confirmed by using sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE), liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (LC-MS), and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis to monitor glycated proteins and protein aggregation in the samples. The results of this study suggested that resveratrol could be used as an inhibitor to reduce the formation of undesirable AGEs and other Maillard reaction products in foods during storage.

Effect of Pretreatments and Air‐Frying, a Novel Technology, on Acrylamide Generation in Fried Potatoes

This paper investigated the effect of air-frying technology, in combination with a pretreatment based of soaking the samples in different chemical agent solutions (citric acid, glycine, calcium lactate, sodium chloride, or nicotinic acid [vitamin B3]), on the generation of acrylamide in fried potatoes. The influence of reducing sugars on the development of surface's color was also analyzed. The experiments were conducted at 180 °C by means of air-frying and deep-oil-frying, as a reference technology. Based on the evolution of color crust with frying time, it could be concluded that the rate of Maillard reaction decreased as the initial reducing sugars content increased in the raw material, and was also lower for deep-oil-frying than for air-frying regardless of pretreatments applied. Air-frying reduced acrylamide content by about 90% compared with conventional deep-oil-frying without being necessary the application of a pretreatment. However, deep-oil fried potatoes pretreated with solutions of nicotinic acid, citric acid, glycine at 1%, and NaCl at 2% presented much lower acrylamide levels (up to 80% to 90% reduction) than nonpretreated samples.

Analytical Method for Differentiation of Chilled and Frozen-Thawed Chicken Meat

Abstract : Chilled and frozen chicken breast and thigh meat were stored at +4±1 oC and - 20±1 oC, respectively. Maillard reaction between ribose and meat proteins of the chicken samples was initiated. The changes in the ribose-induced Maillard reaction rate during chilled and frozen storage of chicken meat were evaluated on the bases of corrected absorbance values (A420*) and bovine melanoidin equivalent values (mg BME/g). Application of BME as a measure of ribose-induced Maillard reaction rate enables comparability of the data obtained by different spectrophotometers. It was found that the BME values of chicken meat frozen stored for more than 15 days were significantly (P<0.05) lower than BME values of chilled-stored samples. According to the suggested threshold limit values the chicken thigh and breast meat with BME values lower than 30 mg BME/g and 51 mg BME/g, respectively could be classified as frozen-thawed.

Physical and chemical properties of tomato, green tea, and ginseng-supplemented corn extrudates produced by conventional extrusion and CO2 injection process

In this study, extrudates were produced from corn flour supplemented with tomato, green tea, and ginseng powder by conventional extrusion and CO2 injection methods. In conventional extrusion process, the die exit temperatures were adjusted to 80, 110, 130 °C and CO2 injection method was carried out at 80 °C. In both extrusion methods, the feed moisture, screw speed, and die diameter were kept constant at 20 %, 250 rpm, and 3 mm, respectively. Corn flour was supplemented with tomato powder at three different levels (4, 8, and 12 %), but ginseng and green tea were added only at 8 % level. The bulk density results generally had an inverse relationship with the expansion index values. Higher tomato powder supplementation levels resulted in higher total phenolic compound levels and antioxidant activities. These increases were around 11-fold as compared to control samples in 12 % tomato powder supplementation level at 130 °C extrusion temperature. The results indicated that antioxidant activity increased with increasing extrusion temperature. This increase might be due to higher amount of Maillard reaction products, with antioxidant activity, formed at higher extrusion temperatures. The color (L*, a*, b*) and hydroxymethylfurfural results proved that the rate of Maillard reaction increased at higher extrusion temperatures during the extrusion process. Green tea supplementation resulted in higher total phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity values as compared to tomato and ginseng supplementation under the same extrusion conditions.

Effect of Saccharide Structure and Size on the Degree of Substitution and Product Dispersity of α-Lactalbumin Glycated via the Maillard Reaction

The course of the Maillard reaction between α-lactalbumin and various mono- and oligosaccharides in the solid state was studied using UPLC-ESI-TOF-MS. Individual reaction products were monitored for their degree of substitution per protein molecule (DSP). The Maillard reaction rate depended on the saccharide type and decreased when the saccharide size increased. Conjugation with charged saccharides was hindered when a specific average DSP was reached, probably resulting from electrostatic repulsion. The DSP varied between 0 and 15, and the standard deviation of the average DSP, which is a measure for product dispersity, increased to 1.9. Similar experiments were performed with a dipeptide. Relative reaction rates in these experiments were 1 for glucose, 0.28 for maltose, and 0.16 for maltotriose. Comparison of the results obtained using α-lactalbumin and the dipeptide made clear that the Maillard reaction rate is determined by a number of factors, including saccharide reactivity and lysine accessibility.

Impact of Starch Gelatinization on the Kinetics of Maillard Reaction in Freeze-Dried Potato Systems

The objective of the present work was to contribute to the understanding of the changes in water-distribution and water–solids interactions that take place after starch gelatinization and to elucidate their influence on the kinetics of Maillard reaction in low-moisture potato starch systems. Maillard reaction was studied in freeze-dried native (NS) and gelatinized (GS) potato starch systems at 70°C. Water sorption isotherms were studied in a wide range of relative humidities (RH) and Guggenheim-Anderson-de Boer (GAB) model was applied. Thermal transitions were studied by differential scanning calorimetry; molecular mobility was estimated through time-resolved 1H NMR, and Maillard reaction was followed photocolorimetrically. In NS systems, the Maillard reaction rate was inversely dependent with the increase of RH. These results are due to a heterogeneous distribution of water and reactants within the starch matrix. In GS systems, the rate coefficient of the Maillard reaction increased up to RHs between 75% and 84% and then decreased at higher RH values. In this case, Maillard reaction rate could be related to the physical properties of the matrix: T g, water sorption, and water mobility can be relevant tools to predict the Maillard reaction rate-dependence on water content.

Assessing the effects of severe heat treatment of milk on calcium bioavailability: In vitro and in vivo studies

Thermal processing of milk is a common practice. As milk is the main source of dietary calcium, this study aimed to assess the effects of overheating milk on calcium availability. Thus, thermally damaged milk (overheated, OH, milk; 3 cycles of sterilization at 116°C, 16min) was compared with UHT milk (150°C, 6s) in 2 types of assays: in vitro and in vivo (rats). In addition, the greater Maillard reaction rate associated with thermal treatment in OH milk was confirmed by determining specific (furosine) and unspecific markers (CieLab color). A negative effect on calcium solubility was observed after in vitro digestion of OH milk compared with UHT milk. Feeding rats the diet containing OH milk as the protein source led to significantly lower values of apparent calcium absorption and retention than those found among animals fed the UHT milk diet. Whereas reducing the absorption appears to result mainly from the decreased food intake, the negative effect on retention seems to be due to factors derived from milk thermal damage, such as the formation of Maillard reaction products. It was concluded that milk-processing conditions warrant special attention to prevent impaired dietary calcium utilization. This may be especially important in situations where milk and dairy products are the main dietary components, such as in early infancy.

Rye Flour Extraction Rate Affects Maillard Reaction Development, Antioxidant Activity, and Acrylamide Formation in Bread Crisps

ABSTRACTThis report shows the effect of rye flour extraction rate on Maillard reaction, antioxidant activity, and acrylamide formation during toasting of rye bread crisps. Four rye flours with extraction rates of 70, 85, 95, and 100% were tested. Maillard reaction development was studied by measuring browning development, hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF), and glucosilisomaltol (GIM) formation, as well as antioxidant activity. Results showed that HMF and GIM concentrations in toasted bread crisps were higher as the flour extraction rate increases. Antioxidant activity increased during toasting as a consequence of antioxidant Maillard reaction product formation. Acrylamide concentration was clearly affected by free asparagine content of flour, while no effect of dietary fiber and natural antioxidant content of flours had an effect on acrylamide formation. Overall data suggest that the rate of Maillard reaction is higher in whole flours because of their higher free amino acid and protein content.

Kinetics of Acrylamide Formation/Elimination Reactions as Affected by Water Activity

The influence of water activity on the kinetics of acrylamide formation and elimination reaction was investigated using low-moisture equimolar asparagine-glucose model systems, which were heated at temperatures between 120 and 200 degrees C for variable heating times. To determine the water content corresponding to the water activities tested, a sorption moisture isotherm was constructed experimentally. The acrylamide concentrations measured at different water activities could be modeled on the basis of a reaction scheme including not only acrylamide formation and elimination reactions but also an alternative Maillard reaction between both reactants. The corresponding rate constants and activation energies were estimated using nonlinear regression analysis. Whereas the rate constant for acrylamide formation varied only slightly with the initial water activity of the model system, the elimination rate constant showed a clear minimum around a water activity of 0.82. The opposite trend, namely, a maximum at a water activity of 0.82, was found for the Maillard reaction rate constant as a function of water activity, which confirms data from literature. The activation energies for the different reactions changed in a comparable way as the corresponding rate constant with water activity.

Effects of NMR transition point temperature on Maillard reaction rate in model food storage systems

Functional nuclear magnetic resonance(NMR) was used to study the effect of NMR state diagram and transition point temperature(Tp) on Maillard reaction rate in model food systems.All systems had the same concentration of reactants,lysine and glucose,but different moisture and inert components,trehalose and sucrose.Carr-Purcell-Meiboom-Gill(CPMG) sequence was used to acquire the sample’s NMR relaxation data at different temperatures.High performance liquid chromatography(HPLC) was used to detect the consumption of reactants in the model food systems during stored in different temperatures.A trend of Tp temperatures change in the NMR state diagram was observed in the model matrixes with different moistures and sugar contents.A relative higher Tp temperature was observed in the low moisture sugar matrix and a relative slow reaction velocity in the identical matrix during storage at the same time.There were obvious reaction velocity differences on the temperatures above and below the Tp temperatures during storage at different temperatures.Different reaction velocities were observed in the samples having different sugar contents with same moisture during storage under an identical temperature.It was concluded that NMR state diagram and Tp temperature is available in accessing the better storage temperature,and an ingredient design would be helpful for the extension of shelf-life by decreasing the relative chemical reaction velocity during storage.

Effect of Reducing Sugar on the Maillard Reaction Rate of Freeze-dried Food in the Glassy State

Effect of Reducing Sugar on the Maillard Reaction Rate of Freeze-dried Food in the Glassy State

ROLES OF THE MAILLARD REACTION IN BROWNING DURING MOROMI PROCESS OF THAI SOY SAUCE

Moromi samples of traditional Thai soy sauce from two conventional manufacturers A and B were used to investigate the browning and chemical changes related to the Maillard reaction (i. e. reactive amino compound, soluble protein, 5% trichloroacetic acid precipitated protein, reducing sugar, and 5-hydroxymethyl-2-furaldehyde). The samples were collected at specific intervals during the 60-day process of moromi fermentation. The browning (OD 420 nm; y) was expressed as powered regression with fermentation time-course (day; x), y=0.5191 * x 0.2367 , r 2 =0.978 and y=0.6188 * x 0.1596 , r 2 =0.821 for moromi A and B, respectively. The browning rate was high at the first 3 days and declined in the later stage, while the accumulation of 5-hydroxy-2-furaldehyde, which is the Maillard reaction intermediate, increased linearly. The size of proteins and peptides observed on sodium dodecyl sulphate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and the measurement of the ratio of 5 % trichloroacetic acid precipitated protein to total soluble protein (PP/SP). This PP/SP ratio showed the linear correlation to browning rate with r 2 =0.921 and 0.965 for moromi A and B, respectively. The results suggested that the rate of browning of the moromi fermentation did not entirely depend upon the Maillard reaction rate. It appeared that the browning is enhanced with the proper size of proteins and peptides.

Effect of heat treatment, water activity and storage temperature on the oxidative stability of whole milk powder

Abstract The oxidative status of high-heat, medium-heat and low-heat whole milk powder was investigated at moderately accelerated storage conditions, with exposure to atmospheric air at 25 or 45 °C and at three water activities (0.11, 0.23 and 0.33 at 25 °C, and 0.11, 0.17 and 0.31 at 45 °C) for 2 months using: (i) electron spin resonance spectrometry for measurement of the level of free radicals, (ii) determination of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) as a measurement of secondary lipid oxidation products, (iii) size-exclusion HPLC for measurement of fluorescent protein polymerization products, and (iv) sensory evaluation. Lipid oxidation was affected greatly by storage temperature, with a maximum level of free radicals being detected after 47 days at 45 °C, and with the highest level in low-heat powder, irrespective of water activity. The sensory quality dropped to an unacceptable level for low-heat powder within 33 days of storage, as confirmed by measurement of TBARS, and the increasing TBARS value was parallelled by a decrease of ‘free’ thiol groups to an unmeasurable level in low-heat powder, in contrast to medium- and high-heat powders, in which the initial level of free thiol groups was only reduced by one-third after 63 days of storage. In contrast to common beliefs, initial powder quality was retained best at water activities between 0.11 and 0.23, where powders showed no significant differences in sensory quality, irrespective of preheat treatment. No difference in sensory score was found for storage at different water activities at 25 °C, whereas storage at water activity 0.31 at 45 °C markedly affected all powders. This effect was ascribed to a combination of increased autoxidation rate and increased Maillard reaction rate giving rise to protein polymerization, in effect decreasing the powder solubility, as often seen during storage under tropical conditions.