Magnitude Estimation Scaling Research Articles

Tipping the Scales: Indiscriminate Use of Interval Scales to Rate Diverse Dysarthric Features.

Error related to incorrect use of rating scales is problematic in the assessment and treatment of dysarthria. The main purpose of this project was to determine scale fit for cardinal speech features of hypokinetic dysarthria. A secondary aim was to determine rater reliability for the two different scales explored. Forty-three speakers with Parkinson's disease (PD) and 25 neurologically healthy control talkers were recorded reading sentences from the Speech Intelligibility Test. Twenty-two healthy female listeners used both an equal appearing interval (EAI) scale and a direct magnitude estimation (DME) scale to rate five perceptual speech features (i.e., overall speech severity, articulatory imprecision, reduced loudness, short rushes of speech, and monotony) from these recordings. Regression analyses were used to determine the linearity of the relationship between the means of the EAI and DME ratings. Inter- and intrarater reliability was calculated using intraclass correlation coefficients and Spearman's correlation coefficients, respectively, for both EAI and DME ratings. There was a linear relationship between EAI and DME means for monotony, indicating it is a metathetic dimension. Curvilinear relationships were observed between the EAI and DME means for the other four features, indicating prothetic dimensions. Intra- and interrater reliability values were similar for EAI and DME ratings. Overall, results of this work suggest that DME is the best fit for scaling several hypokinetic dysarthria features, and not the conventionally used EAI scale. Prothetic dimensions best scaled by DME include overall speech severity, articulatory imprecision, reduced loudness, and short rushes of speech. Monotony was the only feature found to be a metathetic dimension and would be best scaled using EAI or DME. Findings call for rethinking the widespread use of EAI scales for rating perceptual features as part of the assessment and treatment of motor speech disorders.

Usefulness of Direct Magnitude Estimation (DME) in Auditory Perceptual Assessments Measuring Dysphonia Severity

<h2>Summary</h2><h3>Objectives</h3> The purposes of this study were (1) to analyze the reliability of direct magnitude estimation (DME) scales in auditory perceptual assessments measuring dysphonia severity and (2) to analyze the usefulness of DME scales in comparison to that of equal-appearing interval (EAI) scales. <h3>Study Design</h3> Three speech language pathologists perceptually evaluated dysphonia severity from connected speech samples produced by 105 participants with dysphonia. Two auditory perceptual assessments using two scales (DME and EAI) were performed for 2 weeks. The reliabilities of auditory perceptual assessments were analyzed, and correlation analysis was performed to analyze the relationship between the two scales. <h3>Results</h3> DME and EAI were found to have high reliability for auditory perceptual assessments measuring voice severity. There was a significant curvilinear relationship between EAI and DME. This indicates that a prosthetic continuum represents the dysphonia severity and suggests that DME scales should be used to measure dysphonia severity to avoid the linear partitioning related to EAI scales. <h3>Conclusions</h3> Our study supports the use of DME scales when judging the overall voice severity of dysphonic patients.

Effects of reverberation time and sound source composition on sense of place constructs

This study investigates the influence of reverberation time and sound source composition on the sense of place. The experiments were conducted in the private lecturer offices located in the Faculty of Architecture, Çankaya University. The sense of place of 15 participants was tested in the original offices of each participant and eight additional acoustic auralisations, in which reverberation times and sound source compositions were modified. The analysis of the results revealed that there is a direct influence of reverberation time and sound source composition on the sense of place. It was observed that longer reverberation times partially enhanced the sense of place. Additionally, the sound source composition influenced the relation towards the place, and certain sound signals diminished the sense of place in the private offices. Furthermore, this study used a psychophysical scaling method (Absolute Magnitude Estimation scale [AME]) which indicated its validity and importance in investigating the effect of physical stimuli on the sense of place. The AME revealed the sense of place by directing the influence towards the place construct indicators rather than investigating the general relation towards the place. It was concluded that reverberation time and sound source compositions could enhance and/or diminish sense of place; hence, RT and sound source compositions can affect interpretation of and behavior towards a given place.

On the effect of relevance scales in crowdsourcing relevance assessments for Information Retrieval evaluation

Relevance is a key concept in information retrieval and widely used for the evaluation of search systems using test collections. We present a comprehensive study of the effect of the choice of relevance scales on the evaluation of information retrieval systems. Our work analyzes and compares four crowdsourced scales (2-levels, 4-levels, and 100-levels ordinal scales, and a magnitude estimation scale) and two expert-labeled datasets (on 2- and 4-levels ordinal scales). We compare the scales considering internal and external agreement, the effect on IR evaluation both in terms of system effectiveness and topic ease, and we discuss the effect of such scales and datasets on the perception of relevance levels by assessors.Our analyses show that: crowdsourced judgment distributions are consistent across scales, both overall and at the per-topic level; on all scales crowdsourced judgments agree with the expert judgments, and overall the crowd assessors are able to express reliable relevance judgments; all scales lead to a similar level of external agreement with the ground truth, while the internal agreement among crowd workers is higher for fine-grained scales; more fine-grained scales consistently lead to higher correlation values for both system ranking and topic ease; finally, we found that the considered scales lead to different perceived distances between relevance levels.

Role of sweeteners on temporality and bar hardening of protein bars

Protein bars are one product that meet consumer demands for a low-carbohydrate, high-protein food. With such a large market for protein bars, producers need to find the correct texture and sweetness levels to satisfy consumers while still delivering a high-protein, low-carbohydrate bar. In the bar industry, bar hardening is a major concern, and currently the effects of non-nutritive sweeteners on bar hardening is unknown. Due to the negative implications of bar hardening, it is important to investigate the sweetener-protein relationship with bar hardening. The objective of this study was to characterize the effects of sweetener and protein source on flavor, texture, and shelf life of high-protein, low-carbohydrate bars. The iso-sweet concentration of sweeteners (sucralose, sucrose, monk fruit, stevia, and fructose) in pea protein (PP), milk protein (MP) and whey protein isolate (WPI) bars were established using magnitude estimation scaling and 2-alternative forced-choice testing. Descriptive analysis and temporal check-all-that-apply methods were then applied to determine flavor and temporal differences between the protein bars. Finally, an accelerated shelf life study was completed to understand how sweetener and protein types affect the shelf life of protein bars. The 15 protein bars formulated at iso-sweet concentration were all stored at 35°C and 55% humidity for 35 d, and measurements were taken every 7 d, beginning at d 1 (d 1, 7, 14, 21, 28, and 35). Bars made with MP required significantly less sweetener, compared with PP and WPI, to reach equal sweetness. Bars sweetened with stevia or monk fruit had distinct bitter and metallic tastes, and sucralose had a low metallic taste. Bars made with WPI were the most cohesive, and PP and WPI bars were more bitter and metallic compared with MP bars. Bars made with WPI and fructose were initially the hardest, but after d 14 they scored at parity with PP sucrose. There were no significant differences among bars in terms of hardness by d 21. Bars made with WPI were consistently denser at all time points than bars made with PP or MP. Bars made with PP were the driest and least cohesive and had the fastest rate of breakdown in the study. Non-nutritive sweeteners did not have a negative effect on bar hardness in low-carbohydrate, high-protein bars. Findings from this study can be applied to commercially produced protein bars for naturally sweetened bars with different protein types without negative effects on protein bar texture.

Contributions of Voice and Nonverbal Communication to Perceived Masculinity-Femininity for Cisgender and Transgender Communicators.

Purpose The purpose of this study was twofold: (a) to identify a set of communication-based predictors (including both acoustic and gestural variables) of masculinity-femininity ratings and (b) to explore differences in ratings between audio and audiovisual presentation modes for transgender and cisgender communicators. Method The voices and gestures of a group of cisgender men and women (n = 10 of each) and transgender women (n = 20) communicators were recorded while they recounted the story of a cartoon using acoustic and motion capture recording systems. A total of 17 acoustic and gestural variables were measured from these recordings. A group of observers (n = 20) rated each communicator's masculinity-femininity based on 30- to 45-s samples of the cartoon description presented in three modes: audio, visual, and audio visual. Visual and audiovisual stimuli contained point light displays standardized for size. Ratings were made using a direct magnitude estimation scale without modulus. Communication-based predictors of masculinity-femininity ratings were identified using multiple regression, and analysis of variance was used to determine the effect of presentation mode on perceptual ratings. Results Fundamental frequency, average vowel formant, and sound pressure level were identified as significant predictors of masculinity-femininity ratings for these communicators. Communicators were rated significantly more feminine in the audio than the audiovisual mode and unreliably in the visual-only mode. Conclusions Both study purposes were met. Results support continued emphasis on fundamental frequency and vocal tract resonance in voice and communication modification training with transgender individuals and provide evidence for the potential benefit of modifying sound pressure level, especially when a masculine presentation is desired.

Variation is information: Analyses of variation across items, participants, time, and methods in metalinguistic judgment data

AbstractIn a usage-based framework, variation is part and parcel of our linguistic experiences, and therefore also of our mental representations of language. In this article, we bring attention to variation as a source of information. Instead of discarding variation as mere noise, we examine what it can reveal about the representation and use of linguistic knowledge. By means of metalinguistic judgment data, we demonstrate how to quantify and interpret four types of variation: variation across items, participants, time, and methods. The data concern familiarity ratings assigned by 91 native speakers of Dutch to 79 Dutch prepositional phrases such asin de tuin‘in the garden’ andrond de ingang‘around the entrance’. Participants performed the judgment task twice within a period of one to two weeks, using either a 7-point Likert scale or a Magnitude Estimation scale. We explicate the principles according to which the different types of variation can be considered information about mental representation, and we show how they can be used to test hypotheses regarding linguistic representations.

Consumer acceptance of natural sweeteners in protein beverages

Protein beverage consumption by Americans has increased in recent years. Coupled with this increased consumption is an interest in natural sweeteners. The objective of this study was to evaluate the sensory properties of naturally sweetened ready-to-mix (RTM) whey protein beverages using 3 temporal methods and to formulate a natural noncaloric sweetener blend that could be added to RTM protein beverages to provide sweetness while still appealing in flavor to consumers. Iso-sweet concentrations of sweeteners (sucralose, sucrose, fructose, stevia, monk fruit) in RTM vanilla whey protein beverages (25 g of protein/360 mL of water) were established using magnitude estimation scaling and 2-alternative forced-choice testing. Temporal sensory profiling was then conducted on each beverage by a trained panel using time intensity, temporal dominance of sensations, and temporal check-all-that-apply. These findings were used to formulate natural sweetener blends that closely matched the temporality of sucrose-sweetened RTM vanilla protein beverages for consumer testing. One sugar-free blend (25% stevia/75% monk fruit) and 1 reduced-sugar blend (25% stevia/25% monk fruit/50% fructose) were selected for consumer testing (n = 150 consumers) in addition to 3 control RTM beverages containing sucralose, stevia, or monk fruit. Two distinct consumer clusters were identified. The label-conscious segment of consumers preferred beverages sweetened with natural blends when primed. The flavor-driven segment of consumers conceptually preferred naturally sweetened beverages but preferred sucralose-sweetened beverages when primed. An all-natural label claim was most preferred across all consumers. Application of these findings to commercially produced RTM protein beverages aids in the development of naturally sweetened protein beverages with reduced calories and desirable sensory properties and highlights the importance of label claims to consumers overall but to a label-conscious segment of consumers in particular.

Challenges to assumptions regarding oral shear rate during oral processing and swallowing based on sensory testing with thickened liquids

For people with dysphagia, or difficulty swallowing, thickened liquids are used to slow bolus flow to make them easier to control. For these liquids, the oral shear rate of 50 s−1 has been adopted as the standard at which viscosity measurements are taken. However, there is evidence to suggest that other shear rates may be more appropriate to model the processes in the mouth and throat. This research compared the sensory and rheological properties of xanthan gum, guar gum, and carboxymethyl cellulose thickened liquids that had been matched for apparent viscosity at 50 s−1 to assess the validity of the current shear rate standard. Properties of gums were observed at various viscosity levels based on the International Dysphagia Diet Standardisation Initiative (IDDSI) framework. Textural sensory characteristics of samples were quantified using magnitude estimation scaling and a trained descriptive panel, while rheological measurements were taken at shear rates of 1–1000 s−1. Perceived slipperiness of the gums was found to be driven by thickness level at low viscosity levels, but affected by the shear thinning behaviour of the gums at higher viscosity levels. Although the liquids had been matched for apparent viscosity at 50 s−1, panelists could distinguish both the perceived viscosities of the gums and their ease of swallowing, suggesting that 50 s−1 is neither appropriate to model the oral nor pharyngeal shear rates. A single oral shear rate could not be predicted from the data, and it is proposed that panelists evaluated oral viscosity using different methods at different viscosity levels. Based on the sensory data, the pharyngeal shear rate during swallowing appears to lie above 50 s−1.

Food texture and sweetener type modify sweetness perception in whey protein‐based model foods

AbstractIn an effort to formulate healthier food products, sugar is often reduced or replaced with artificial or natural non‐nutritive sweeteners. However, the removal of sucrose often changes food texture, and non‐nutritive sweeteners inherently exhibit differences in sweetness quality, onset, and overall intensity. Therefore, the objectives of this study were to evaluate the effects of texture on sweetness dose‐response profiles of whey protein solutions sweetened with sucrose, sucralose, stevia, or monk fruit extracts, and to assess temporal progression of dominant attributes. Whey protein‐based model foods with different textural properties were generated without modifying composition by varying heating time. Dose‐response power functions and iso‐sweet equivalencies were determined using magnitude estimation scaling. Temporal profiles of dominant texture, taste, and flavor attributes were evaluated using temporal dominance of sensations (TDS). A significant texture‐sweetener interaction effect was observed (p &lt; .05), where more viscous or semisolid textures required greater amounts of sweetener for iso‐sweetness. Moreover, the dose‐response slope decreased with increasing thickness for sucralose, stevia, and monk fruit‐sweetened textures. Results of TDS indicated that increased thickness prolonged the dominance of several attributes. This study shows that sugar reduction strategies are not universal; food matrix, sweetener type, and usage level need to be considered when attempting to modify texture or reduce sucrose.Practical applicationsSucrose reduction, use of nonnutritive sweeteners, and texture modification are all ways in which food manufacturers can increase the healthful quality of the food supply. However, these types of modifications can alter the overall sensory properties of a food. Texture‐taste interactions are not currently well understood, and knowledge in this area is important for designing ways to modify texture or reduce sucrose for health and enjoyment. The results of this study provide insight into texture‐taste interactions, indicating that sugar reduction or replacement strategies are not one size fits all and are likely product and sweetener‐specific.

Testing and comparison of three frequency-based magnitude estimating parameters for earthquake early warning based events in the Yunnan region, China in 2014

To mitigate potential seismic disasters in the Yunnan region, China, building up suitable magnitude estimation scaling laws for an earthquake early warning system (EEWS) is in high demand. In this paper, the records from the main and after-shocks of the Yingjiang earthquake (M W 5.9), the Ludian earthquake (M W 6.2) and the Jinggu earthquake (M W 6.1), which occurred in Yunnan in 2014, were used to develop three estimators, including the maximum of the predominant period the characteristic period (τ c) and the log-average period (τ log), for estimating earthquake magnitude. The correlations between these three frequency-based parameters and catalog magnitudes were developed, compared and evaluated against previous studies. The amplitude and period of seismic waves might be amplified in the Ludian mountain-canyon area by multiple reflections and resonance, leading to excessive values of the calculated parameters, which are consistent with Sichuan's scaling. As a result, τ log was best correlated with magnitude and τ c had the highest slope of regression equation, while performed worst with large scatter and less sensitivity for the change of magnitude. No evident saturation occurred in the case of M 6.1 and M 6.2 in this study. Even though both τ c and τ log performed similarly and can well reflect the size of the Earthquake, τ log has slightly fewer prediction errors for small scale earthquakes (M ≤ 4.5), which was also observed by previous research. Our work offers an insight into the feasibility of a EEWS in Yunnan, China, and this study shows that it is necessary to build up an appropriate scaling law suitable for the warning region.

The Effectiveness of the Progression of Widex Zen Tinnitus Therapy: A Pilot Study.

The aim of this study was to measure the progression of benefits to individuals with tinnitus from providing informational counseling, hearing aids, a brief tinnitus activities treatment and Zen therapy. Several magnitude estimation scales and tinnitus handicap scales were administered for the duration of the study to 20 participants. Results indicated that all participants benefited from this sequential approach of providing different components of this tinnitus treatment. Large benefits were observed following the tinnitus activities treatment and the Zen treatments. We conclude that the progressive approach of treatment demonstrated here should be of benefit to most individuals with tinnitus and that the Widex Zen sound therapy is a worthwhile treatment for many tinnitus sufferers.

The effects of cognitive behavioral therapy on experimental orthodontic pain

PurposeTo evaluate the effectiveness of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) for subjects with experimental orthodontic pain. Materials and methodsThirty-two healthy adult volunteers (mean age of 24.8 years) were recruited and randomized into two groups: CBT intervention group (CBT group; n=16) and no intervention group (control group; n=16). Subjects had no spaces in a row of teeth, and contact between the second bicuspid tooth and first molar tooth of upper jaw of both sides could tolerate insertion of a contact gauge (50–110μm). Elastic separators were inserted between both sides of the second bicuspid tooth and first molar tooth of the upper jaw. CBT was conducted in the CBT group immediately and 1 day after insertion with a CBT operator, and 2–7 days after insertion by the subjects themselves. Pain evaluation was assessed using the methods of magnitude estimation and visual analog scales were carried out as rating scales. All evaluations were conducted before, immediately after, 1 day, and 7 days after insertion of the separator. ResultsIn the standardized scores of magnitude estimates of pain, the scores of the CBT group immediately after insertion were significantly higher than those of the control group. Scores of the CBT group 1 day after insertion were significantly lower than those of the control group. ConclusionCBT was shown to be effective in the management of orthodontic pain and could merit clinical application.

Odor potency, aroma profile and volatiles composition of cold pressed oil from industrial passion fruit residues

In Brazil, the industrial exploitation of passion fruit generates agro-industrial waste potentially dangerous to the environment. Thus, the objective of the present research was to explore the use of the waste produced during passion fruit processing (Passiflora edulis f. flavicarpa) for the manufacture of aromatic oil. The waste was dried, ground, cold pressed, and centrifuged. The oil was characterized for its moisture content, density, acidity, and for its refractive, iodine, and saponification indexes. The volatile compounds present in the headspace of the oil were isolated using the SPME technique and identified by GC-MS. Trained panelists evaluated the odoriferous strength of the oil as compared to fresh passion fruit pulp using the magnitude estimation scale, and quantitative descriptive analysis. Forty-nine volatile compounds were identified in the oil, the esters representing the major compounds with approximately 60% of the total area of the chromatogram, followed by the alcohols (15.5%), and terpenes (9.5%). Ethyl butanoate, ethyl hexanoate, and hexyl acetate were the major compounds found in the oil. The oil possessed high odoriferous strength, from two to three times superior to that of the pulp, an aroma profile similar to that of fresh passion fruit and good potential for use in the manufacture of aromatizing products.

A Concurrent Mixed Methods Approach to Examining the Quantitative and Qualitative Meaningfulness of Absolute Magnitude Estimation Scales in Survey Research

This small n observational study used a concurrent mixed methods approach to address a void in the literature with regard to the qualitative meaningfulness of the data yielded by absolute magnitude estimation scaling (MES) used to rate subjective stimuli. We investigated whether respondents’ scales progressed from less to more and provided for meaningful discriminations, similarities and differences in how they defined their scales, and whether their definitions were congruent with how they used their scales. The respondents completed a think-aloud task while using MES and a follow-up interview regarding how they used MES and defined their scales. The respondents’ scales did not yield meaningful data. Implications for survey research and the use of mixed methods in rating scale construction are discussed.

Reliability of procedures used for scaling loudness

In this study, 16 normally hearing listeners judged the loudness of 1000-Hz sinusoids using magnitude estimation (ME), magnitude production (MP), and categorical loudness scaling (CLS). Listeners in each of four groups completed the loudness scaling tasks in a different sequence on the first visit (ME, MP, CLS; MP, ME, CLS; CLS, ME, MP; CLS, MP, ME), and the order was reversed on the second visit. This design made it possible to compare the reliability of estimates of the slope of the loudness function across procedures in the same listeners. The ME data were well fitted by an inflected exponential (INEX) function, but a modified power law was used to obtain slope estimates for both ME and MP. ME and CLS were more reliable than MP. CLS results were consistent across groups, but ME and MP results differed across groups in a way that suggested influence of experience with CLS. Although CLS results were the most reproducible, they do not provide direct information about the slope of the loudness function because the numbers assigned to CLS categories are arbitrary. This problem can be corrected by using data from the other procedures to assign numbers that are proportional to loudness. [Work supported by NIH.]

Fundamental Measurement of Perceived Length and Perceived Area

Using the method of counting mental units the study explored whether judged lengths and area in right triangles, squares, and disks were consistent with the geometric relationships in these surfaces. Judgments were found to consist with these relationships supporting the idea that they were fundamental measures of perceived extents. Fundamental measures obtained by mental counting differ from corresponding measures obtained by magnitude estimation, rating, and nonmetric scaling. Reasons are suggested as to why these other methods may be biased.

Calibration of subjects with master scaling: An application to the perceived activity disturbance due to aircraft noise

The aim of this study is to assess whether or not rating perceived activity disturbance using magnitude estimation scale and using master-scaling transformation is more relevant than rating disturbance with category scale to reveal the influence of the number and the sound quality of aircraft flyovers. The master-scaling transformation is intended to reduce the inter-individual differences between people. Thirty participants were subjected to six sound sequences. They attended the test in two different sessions separated by a week at least, and had to evaluate the level of activity disturbance due to the noise environment when carrying out memory and concentration tasks. During each session, participants first went through a calibration phase and were then subjected to one 20-min sound sequence. The calibration phase, which can be also considered as a training phase at the beginning of each session, allows subjects to built their own annoyance scale. As expected, the perceived activity disturbance depends on the equivalent sound level and on the number of aircraft. But the master-scaling transformation did not succeed in reducing the variability between subjects. This transformation which calibrates the subjects on only one aspect of the sound (which is the equivalent sound level in this experiment) could emphasis the difference between subjects who have been more or less sensitive to other aspects of the sound (the tonality or the repetition of events in this experiment) than to loudness. Nevertheless, this experiment confirms that Stroop reaction time, which is influenced by the number of flyovers, seems to be adapted for measuring the effect of noise on task achievement.

Salty taste in dairy foods: Can we reduce the salt?

Sodium can be found in many sources of the US diet. Dietary guidelines currently suggest a maximum intake of 2,300mg of sodium (6g of sodium chloride) per day, whereas the average consumer intake is 3,600mg of sodium (9g of sodium chloride) per day. The main health concern with high consumption of sodium is hypertension. The objectives of this study were to identify the salty taste intensity of sodium chloride in water and various dairy food matrices, and to identify the just-noticeable difference in concentration at which consumers noticed a decrease in salty taste in these food products. Solutions and food products (water, cheese sauce, cottage cheese, and milk-based soup) were prepared with sodium chloride ranging in concentration from 0.008 to 0.06 M. Seventeen panelists evaluated the salty intensity of each product in triplicate using a magnitude estimation scale. In subsequent tests, panelists (n=50) evaluated salty intensity of these food products in separate sessions using an ascending force choice method to determine the just-noticeable difference. Consumer acceptance tests (n=75 consumers) were conducted with cottage cheeses with and without sodium reductions and under conditions with and without health benefits of sodium reduction. The magnitude estimation scale data were log-transformed, and all data were analyzed by ANOVA with Fisher's least significant difference for means separation. The linear proportion of the power function in the salty taste intensity curve for sodium chloride solutions and the 3 foods was between 0.03 and 0.20 M. Consumers were able to notice and correctly identify reductions in salt concentration of less than 20% in all products. When consumers were informed of sodium reduction and its health benefits before tasting cottage cheese with lower sodium (4–12%), overall liking scores for the lower sodium cottage cheeses were not different from higher sodium cottage cheeses. These results suggest that reducing sodium in cheese sauce, cottage cheese, and milk-based soups may be challenging and that exploration of sodium chloride alternatives in these foods is warranted. Appropriate product positioning or advertising may be beneficial to consumer acceptance of lower sodium types of products.

Scaling the information processing demands of occupations

The purpose of this study was to provide additional validity evidence for a model of person–environment fit based on polychronicity, stimulus load, and information processing capacities. In this line of research the confluence of polychronicity and information processing (e.g., the ability of individuals to process stimuli from the environment along five dimensions of information load, interpersonal load, change load, time structure, and activity structure) is applied to the occupational environment. Using magnitude estimation scaling, college students in the United States and Portugal rated 42 occupations across five information processing demand characteristics. Results indicated that occupations could be differentiated by the information load conditions, thus producing a profile of information processing demand characteristics unique to each of the occupations tested. Additional findings provided evidence for the validity of the scaled occupational values; ratings differed reliably across Holland categories, were fairly consistent across the two cultural groups, and showed expected relationships with salary and educational level.