Magnetostrictive Characteristics Research Articles

Study on magnetostrictive properties of oriented silicon steel sheet under different working conditions

Accurate measurement of magnetostriction is the basis for calculating the vibration of silicon steel laminated core. In this paper, a laser magnetostriction measurement system (MST500) is used to study the magnetostriction characteristics of silicon steel under sinusoidal, third harmonic, and DC bias magnetization. The magnetostrictive butterfly curves, time domain waveforms, and spectrum diagrams of silicon steel sheets under different excitations are compared and analyzed. The effects of different operating conditions on the magnetostrictive properties of silicon steel sheets were studied and analyzed, mainly including amplitude and spectrum analysis. Finally, the magnetostrictive peak to peak curves under different operating conditions were extracted, providing a data basis for the core vibration of power equipment.

Vibration characteristics of a single‐phase four‐column auto‐transformer core excited by geomagnetically induced currents

AbstractDuring geomagnetic storms, geomagnetically induced currents (GICs) occur in the power grid. GIC is a quasi‐direct current, which is represented by using a fixed DC current, the authors propose an approach that combines field‐circuit‐coupled and weakly coupled magneto‐mechanical models to investigate the magnetostriction characteristics of single‐phase, four‐column autotransformer cores excited by GICs. A non‐linear magnetostrictive constitutive model that considers the impact of stress and magnetisation intensity on ferromagnetic materials is introduced. The model reveals that the strain in the core initially increases as the magnetisation intensity increases; however, when the core begins to saturate, the magnetostrictive strain weakens as the magnetisation intensity increases. Moreover, the results of multiphysics finite‐element modelling are experimentally verified using a direct current bias platform. The results show that when excited by GICs, there is an enhancement in the vibration of the iron core, and the harmonic content of the vibration acceleration increases considerably, with the odd harmonics most significantly increasing in amplitude. The conclusion drawn is that GICs can exacerbate transformer vibration and significantly increase the content of harmonics, especially odd harmonics.

The effect of the viscoelastic support and GRPL-reinforced foam material on the thermomechanical vibration response of piezomagnetic sandwich nanosensor plates

This paper investigates the vibration characteristics of a sandwich nanosensor plate composed of piezoelectric materials, specifically barium and cobalt, in the upper and lower layers, and a core material consisting of either ceramic (silicon nitride) or metal (stainless steel) foams reinforced with graphene (GPRL). The study utilized the novel sinosoidal higher-order deformation theory and nonlocal strain gradient elasticity theory. The equations of motion for nanosensor sandwich graphene were derived using Hamilton's principle, considering the thermal, electroelastic, and magnetostrictive characteristics of the piezomagnetic surface plates. These equations were then solved using the Navier method. The core element of the sandwich nanosensor plate can be represented using three distinct foam variants: a uniform foam model, as well as two symmetric foam models. The investigation focused on analyzing the dimensionless fundamental natural frequencies of the sandwich nanosensor plate. This analysis considered the influence of three distinct foam types, the volumetric graphene ratio, temperature variation, nonlocal parameters, porosity ratio, electric and magnetic potential, as well as spring and shear viscoelastic support. Furthermore, an analysis was conducted on the impact of the metal and ceramic composition of the central section of the sandwich nanosensor plate on its dimensionless fundamental natural frequencies. In this context, the use of ceramic as the central material results in a mean enhancement of 33% in the fundamental natural frequencies. In contrast, the incorporation of graphene into the core material results in an average enhancement of 27%. The thermomechanical vibration behavior of the nanosensor plate reveals that the presence of graphene-supported foam and a viscoelastic support structure in the core layer leads to an increase in thermal resistance. This increase is dependent on factors such as the ratio of graphene, porosity ratio of the foam, and parameters of the viscoelastic support. Metal foam or ceramic foam has been found to enhance thermal resistance when compared to solid metal or ceramic core materials. The analysis results showed that it is important to take into account the temperature-dependent thermal properties of barium and cobalt, which are piezo-electromagnetic materials, and the core layer materials ceramics and metal, as well as the graphene used to strengthen the core. The research is anticipated to generate valuable findings regarding the advancement and utilization of nanosensors, transducers, and nano-electromechanical systems engineered for operation in high-temperature environments.

Magnetostrictive Vibration Characteristics of Amorphous Alloy Transformer With Three-Dimensional Wound Core

Magnetostrictive Vibration Characteristics of Amorphous Alloy Transformer With Three-Dimensional Wound Core

Structural and magnetostrictive properties of intermetallic (Tb,Ho)(Fe,Co)[formula omitted] compounds

The influence of iron substitution by cobalt on the structural and magnetostrictive characteristics of (Tb,Ho)(Fe, Co)2-type compounds is investigated. It is established that cobalt doping of the Tb0.16Ho0.84Fe2 compound leads to an increase in the Curie temperature and a decrease in the lattice constant. It is shown that the anisotropic magnetostriction of the Tb0.16Ho0.84Fe2−xCox (x≤0.4) compounds significantly exceeds the volumetric one in the moderate (up to 1.2T) magnetic fields. The Tb0.16Ho0.84Fe1.8Co0.2 composition with the highest saturation magnetostriction and magnetostrictive susceptibility is found.

Measurement of Magnetic and Magnetostrictive Characteristics of Transformer Core Based on Triaxial Strain Gauge and B-H Vector Sensor.

As is well known, the magnetostrictive phenomenon of electrical steel sheet is the main source of electricity in equipment such as transformers. The magnetostrictive characteristic of the actual transformer core is more complicated than that of single-sheet steel. The magnetostriction phenomenon of the transformer core cannot be fully understood by studying only a single piece of electrical steel, so it is necessary to study the local magnetic characteristics of the transformer directly. In this paper, two-limb, one-phase transformer core with a multi-step-lap construction was assembled, a laminated magnetostrictive testing system based on triaxial strain gauges was built, and the local magnetic characteristics were studied using a self-developed B-H vector sensor. The magnetostrictive and magnetic properties in different local regions were measured and analyzed under several magnetization patterns, and the influence of DC bias on the magnetostrictive property of the corner, yoke, and limb of the core was investigated. The influence of the position of the clamp on the magnetostriction of the transformer core was also studied. The magnetostrictive strain of the single sheet and laminated core was compared and discussed. The results showed that the strain caused by the interaction between laminations in this area can be effectively reduced when clamping in the middle of the yoke.

Research on the Magnetostrictive Characteristics of Transformers under DC Bias

Direct current (DC) bias leads to increased vibration and noise in transformers. One of the main causes is the magnetostrictive effect of the transformer core. To address this phenomenon of magnetostriction, firstly, a transmission line model (TLM) of a single-phase transformer under DC bias is developed using transmission line theory and Jiles–Atherton (J–A) ferromagnetic hysteresis theory, taking into account the winding copper loss, core eddy current loss, and leakage effect. Secondly, the time-domain simulation of the single-phase transformer based on the Newton–Raphson iterative method is carried out, and the magnetostriction characteristics of the transformer under different DC and its variation law are analyzed. Finally, the results show that the DC bias results in magnetostrictive distortion and vibration acceleration curve distortion, the left and right wings of the magnetostrictive butterfly curve are no longer symmetrical, the slope of the vibration acceleration image increases significantly, and the degree of distortion is positively correlated with the magnitude of the DC. In addition, the peak values of the magnetostrictive deformation and vibration acceleration become larger under DC bias, leading to an increase in the vibration and noise of the transformer. The research object of this paper is the single-phase transformer, and the research method can also be applied to the study of three-phase transformers.

Ni–Ga and Mg–Ga co-substituted sintered CoFe2O4 ceramics: Studies of their magnetic and magnetostrictive properties

Magnetostrictive smart materials (MSMs) with superior magnetostriction parameters (strain (λ) and strain sensitivity (dλ/dH)) are indispensable components for device applications in actuators, torque sensors, and transducers. This study investigates the magnetostrictive characteristics of sintered CoFe2O4 (CFO), Co0.85Ni0.15Fe1.85Ga0.15O4 (CNFGO15) and Co0.85Mg0.15Fe1.85Ga0.15O4 (CMFGO15) ceramics synthesized via a solution combustion method, followed by palletisation and sintering (1350 °C for 2 h). It is revealed from interpretation of XRD data of as-synthesized samples that ferrite powders are single phase and nanosized. This means that post-synthesis calcination is not requisite. According to Rietveld refinement analysis performed on powder data of sintered samples, sintered compositions are single phase, and unit cell parameters are 8.38501, 8.37585 and 8.37664 Å for CFO, CNFGO15 and CMFGO15, respectively. Raman bands, more than five, have been detected in the samples' Raman spectra, due to the mixed spinel structure of the materials. The co-substitution induced substantial grain growth, and the mean grain size follows the order of CMFGO15> CNFGO15>CFO. EDS spectra suggested that compositions stoichiometry is maintained. The chemical state and cation distributions of sintered CFO, CNFGO15 and CMFGO15 samples were studied using their XPS data. Despite high co-substitution in CNFGO15 and CMFGO15 samples, their saturation magnetization (MS) is comparable with the CFO sample value because both tetrahedral (A-site) and octahedral (B-site) sites are diluted equally. However, other magnetic parameters such as coercivity (HC), anisotropy constant (K1), Curie temperature (TC) of CNFGO15 and CMFGO15 are low compared to pristine CFO sample values. The CMFGO15 sample exhibited enhanced λ and dλ/dH at low magnetic fields against the other two samples. Furthermore, the maximum strain sensitivity [dλ/dH]max of CMFGO15 sample is −1.93 × 10−9 m/A at 30 kA/m. This is nearly 160% higher than the values found for other two samples even at remarkable low field.

Enhanced magnetostriction of Co–Ni-ferrite composites derived from hard (CoFe2O4) and soft (NiFe2O4) magnetostrictive phases

We report on the enhanced magnetostrictive characteristics of composites derived from the hard cobalt ferrite (CoFe2O4; CFO) and soft nickel ferrite (NiFe2O4; NFO) materials. The CFO, NFO and CFO-NFO (CNFO) mixed composites (25NFO + 75CFO, 50NFO + 50CFO and 75NFO + 25 CFO) were synthesized by employing a cost-effective and eco-friendly glycine-nitrate autocombustion method. The CFO, NFO and their mixed composites were evaluated to assess their phase purity, surface morphology, magnetic properties, and magnetostrictive characteristics. The X-ray diffraction (XRD) and electron microscopy analyses revealed that the CFO and NFO nanomaterials were phase pure, porous in nature, and nano-sized with average crystallite size of 73 nm (CFO) and 69 nm (NFO). Subsequently, the Co–Ni-ferrite composite made from CFO and NFO in equal quantity by sintering at 1200 °C indicate that the lattice parameter, a, of the composite lies in between the lattice parameters of respective components (CFO-8.390 Å and NFO-8.343 Å) indicating that both phases co-exists as single-phase in the composite. The grains of the sintered compounds are nearly spherical shape with the average sizes ∼670 nm, ∼550 nm and ∼560 nm, respectively, for CFO, NFO and 50NFO +50CFO composite. Due to grain growth upon sintering, magnetizations of the sintered CFO and NFO nanomaterials are higher than that of as-synthesized samples. Interestingly, the magnetization curves of sintered CNFO composites exhibit symmetric nature (single loop), where their magnetization lies in between the magnetizations of NFO and CFO phases, indicating a proper exchange coupled between the two phases. The composites demonstrate better magnetostriction at lower magnetic fields than the parent sintered CFO and NFO samples. At an applied magnetic field of 2 kOe, the obtained magnetostriction value for 50NFO +50CFO composite (−120 ppm) is nearly 500% higher than that of CFO (−20 ppm) and 300% higher than that of NFO (−30 ppm). The structure-phase-property correlation established in these composites expected to provide a road-map for their possible applications in electromagnetic devices.

Radial Electromagnetic Force Estimation Using Strain Gauges in Switched Reluctance Motors

This study proposes a novel estimation method of the radial electromagnetic force in airgaps using strain gauges attached to the stator teeth in switched reluctance motors (SRMs). The proposed method compensates for the errors owing to magnetostriction and the non-uniform strain distribution on stator teeth. To verify the method, two test SRMs are fabricated with two different core materials; the 6.5% high silicon steel (10JNEX900) and amorphous iron (2605SA1), which have significantly different magnetostriction characteristics. Without the proposed compensations, the estimated radial force is higher than the finite element analysis (FEA) results owing to the extra deformation caused by magnetostriction. After applying the proposed method, the estimated force has good correspondence with the FEA results, and the error is reduced from 24% to 4% in the high silicon steel SRM. Regarding the amorphous iron SRM, the force estimated error was as high as 413% without compensations and is reduced to 64% by the proposed method. Additionally, the force waveforms are deformed because of the subtraction of the dominant magnetostrictive strain and phase delay in the amorphous iron SRM. In conclusion, the proposed method is effective in estimating the radial force on core materials with low magnetostriction.

Measurement of alternating and rotational magnetostrictions of Non-oriented silicon steel sheets

Extensive numerical analyses and experimental tests have shown that while major regions of magnetic cores in electromagnetic devices, such as transformers and rotating electric machines, are dominated by the alternating magnetic fields, the rotating magnetic fields exist in the corner joints of multi-phase transformers and the yoke area behind the teeth of rotating electric machines. These magnetic fields cause core losses due to hysteresis and eddy currents, mechanical vibration and acoustic noises due to magnetostriction. Many studies have been reported in the literature on alternating and rotational core losses and alternating magnetostriction, but not so much on rotational magnetostriction, especially in non-oriented (NO) silicon steel sheets. The vibration and noise caused by rotational magnetostriction are much higher than those caused by alternating magnetostriction. This paper reports the development of a magnetostriction measurement system consisting of a 2D symmetrical single sheet tester (SST) and resistance strain gauges. The selection considerations of resistance strain gauges are summarized. The alternating and rotational magnetostriction characteristics of a NO silicon steel, B35A300 (0.35 mm), are measured. Because the rotating magnetic field in the stator is not always ideally circular but more often elliptical, the magnetostriction under elliptical magnetizations with different axis ratios is also measured. The magnetostriction anisotropy of the NO steel sheet is observed and analyzed. The elongation and contraction under alternating, circular and elliptical rotating magnetizations with different axis ratios are discussed. The results can provide data support for calculating and designing multi-phase transformers and rotating electric machines under different types of magnetizations. The research can provide theoretical and practical guidance for mitigating mechanical vibration and acoustic noise caused by magnetostriction.

A simplified magnetostrictive model under rotational magnetization in an electrical steel sheet taking the pinning hysteresis effect into account

A large number of experimental observations show that under two-dimensional (2-D) rotational magnetization, there is a complicated relationship between the magnetostrictive strain and magnetic flux density. In this paper, the magnetostrictive characteristics in a non-oriented electrical steel sheet under 2-D magnetization are measured and modelled based on the experimental system developed by the laboratory. The in-plane magnetostrictive strain tensor under the 2-D magnetization is expressed as nonlinear superposition of dynamic magnetostrictive strain in the rolling direction (RD) and transverse direction (TD), respectively. The magnetostriction’s first derivative with respect to magnetization depicts the pinning effect and the interaction among magnetic domains which result in the hysteresis behaviour. And based on the particle swarm optimization (PSO), the model parameters are identified. The validity of the proposed model is verified by comparing the calculation results with the experimental ones. Studies have shown that the magnetostrictive properties in an electrical steel sheet have strong hysteresis behaviour under the 2-D magnetization, and the model proposed here can well characterize these characteristics.

Analysis of the elasto-magnetic wave propagation in a smart magnetostrictive actuator using a mesh-free method

This work aims to propose an implicit algorithm for solving the magnetoelastic wave propagation in a magnetostrictive actuator. This algorithm is built by combining meshless methods with the Newmark implicit time scheme. The mathematical formulation of vibrations of the actuator is performed by modeling the experimental actuator device by a monodimensional magnetostrictive cylindrical rod attached to an elastic spring, subjected to an axial magnetic field. The formulation of the problem is carried out using the rod model. The study is carried out taking into account mechanical and magnetic effects described by a linear model of strain-stress magnetoelastic relations, whose coefficients depend on the square of the magnetic field, elastic, magnetostrictive, and magnetoelastic characteristics of the elastomagnetic material of which the rod is made. The dynamic equation which describes the magnetoelastic wave propagation in the actuator is obtained by applying the Lagrangian formalism based on the least action principle. The wave propagation is governed by a spatio-temporal partial differential equation whose coefficients are a function of on elastic, magnetostrictive, and magnetic characteristics and implicitly depends on time. The resolution of the dynamic equation is made by adopting two numerical approaches developed by combining the mesh-free collocation methods, the Moving Least Squares (MLS), and the Radial Point Interpolation Method (RPIM) with the Newmark implicit scheme temporal integration. By performing the spatial discretization of the displacement, we obtain a system of linear second-order ordinary differential equations (ODEs), then transform it into a system of first-order ordinary differential equations after integrating Newmark’s implicit time scheme. A comparison of results computed by the proposed numerical approaches RPIM and MLS with experimental data available in the literature is presented. The stability and the solutions qualities of two meshless methods, RPIM and MLS, are also studied. The influence of magnetical and mechanical parameters as well as the coupling coefficients on the performance of the magnetostrictive actuator is also made.

A dynamic magnetostrictive model based on the Jiles–Atherton hysteresis model and field separation approach

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to combine the Jiles-Atherton (J-A) hysteresis model with the field separation approach to realize the accurate simulation of dynamic magnetostrictive characteristics of silicon steel sheet.Design/methodology/approachFirst, the energy loss of silicon steel sheet is divided into hysteresis loss Why, classical eddy current loss Wed and anomalous loss Wan according to the statistical theory of losses. The Why is calculated by static J-A hysteresis model, Wed and Wan are calculated by the analytical formulae. Then, based on the field separation approach, the dynamic magnetic field is derived. Finally, a new dynamic magnetostrictive model is proposed by means of the quadratic domain rotation model.FindingsComparison of simulation and experimental results verifies that the proposed model has high accuracy and strong universality.Originality/valueThe proposed method improves the existing method’s problem of relying on too much experimental data, and the method ensures the calculation accuracy, parameter identification accuracy and engineering practicability. Consequently, the presented work greatly facilitates further explorations and studies on simulation of dynamic magnetostrictive characteristics of silicon steel sheet.

The Vector Electromagnetic Vibration of Magnetically Controlled Reactor Considering the Vector Hysteretic Magnetostriction Effect

Magnetically controlled reactors (MCRs) are widely used as reactive power compensation equipment owing to their favorable properties of smoothly adjusting their inductance value through dc bias. However, the dc bias and the rotational magnetization at corner and T-joint areas make the cores of MCRs saturated, resulting in high magnetostriction and vibration. Thus, the electromagnetic vibration analysis of MCRs must consider the vector hysteretic magnetostriction effect. In this article, a vector hysteretic magnetostriction model of silicon steel is proposed by combining the quadratic domain rotation model with the vector inverse Jiles–Atherton model firstly. Then, based on the measured magnetization and magnetostrictive characteristics curves of silicon steel, the model’s parameters are optimized by velocity controllable particle swarm optimization (VCPSO). Finally, the vector hysteretic magnetostriction model is combined with the finite element method (FEM) to simulate the vector vibration characteristics of MCR under dc bias. The simulation results show that the vector property of electromagnetic vibration and magnetic field at the T-joint area is higher than that at other areas. And the MCR vibration test results are consistent with the simulation results, which verify the accuracy of the proposed model in simulating electromagnetic vibration.

Structural, magnetic, magnetostrictive and optical properties of Mn and Cu codoped cobalt ferrite

Magnetostrictive materials have been a sought-after multifunctional material due to their propensity to be used in applications such as sensors, actuators, transducers, and other magnetoelectric devices. Cobalt ferrite (CoFe2O4) is one such commonly used magnetostrictive material due to its high magnetostriction and low cost. This work deals with the synthesis of CoFe2O4 (CFO) by substitution of Cu2+ at the tetrahedral site, Mn3+ at the octahedral site, and simultaneous substitution of Cu2+ and Mn3+ at both sites followed by its subsequent characterization. Hydrothermal method was adopted to synthesize the aforementioned samples. The effect of doping was then studied by analyzing their structural, magnetic, morphology, magnetostrictive, and Mössbauer properties. The obtained results reveal that doping of the transition metal ions is crucial in determining the magnetostrictive characteristics of CoFe2O4. Sequential addition of Cu2+, Mn3+ and their simultaneous addition leads to an enhancement in the piezomagnetic coefficient (dλ/dH)max of the CFO system and considerably reduces the magnetic field corresponding to the peak piezomagnetic coefficient.

Characteristics of carbon fiber reinforced polymers embedded with magnetostrictive Fe–Co wires at room and high temperatures

Composite materials, such as carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP), glass fiber reinforced polymer, and fiber-reinforced metal matrix, have considerable application potential in the aerospace industry as structural components require remarkable mechanical properties such as high strength, high elasticity, and lightweight. Structural health monitoring (SHM) is required to ensure the safe use of these structural components during service. Magnetostrictive materials can convert mechanical energy into magnetic energy, and are considered desirable candidates to be used in SHM sensors owing to their large magnetostriction, long life, and low cost. In this study, we developed the composite materials comprising CFRPs with embedded Fe–Co wires and evaluated their magnetic and magnetostrictive characteristics using the vibrating sample magnetometer and strain gauge, respectively. Furthermore, the magnetostriction was analyzed using the nonlinear constitutive equations for magnetostrictive materials. It was shown that the largest piezomagnetic constant of 0.281 × 10−9 m/A is obtained for the CFRP with Fe–Co wires of 0.05 mm diameter. Microstructural observation of the Fe–Co wires with different diameters was performed to investigate the differences in grain structure and residual strain because the diameter of the Fe–Co wire affects the magnetostrictive response. Finally, the magnetostrictive characteristic was measured at high temperatures. The piezomagnetic constant at 373 K was about the same as the value obtained at room temperature. These results will contribute to developing the high-performance CFRP/Fe–Co wire composites that can be used in SHM sensors operating in high-temperature environments.

Magnetostrictive hysteretic properties estimation of electrical steel sheet under external stress using improved ADSM model

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to improve the modeling accuracy of the magnetostrictive hysteretic characteristics by introducing hysteresis energy instead of pinning energy in the assembled domain structure model (ADSM).Design/methodology/approachFirst, the magnetostrictive characteristics and the domain movement process in an electrical steel sheet are measured and observed. The reasons for the influence of stress on magnetostriction are discussed on the mesoscopic level. Second, the ADSM model using the hysteresis energy is investigated to estimate the influence of external stress. Finally, the simulation results of the modified ADSM model are compared with the experimental data under the same calculation conditions.FindingsThe results show that the improved model not only explains the cause of hysteresis clearly from the perspective of the magnetic moment but also improves the modeling ability of magnetostrictive hysteretic.Originality/valueThe magnetostriction in electrical steel lags behind the external magnetic field, and it is significant for reducing core vibration to estimate the magnetostrictive hysteretic property accurately. This paper proposes an effective approach to model the hysteretic characterization of magnetostriction.

Study on magnetostriction characteristics under different measurement conditions under an externally compressive stress

The measurement of magnetostriction characteristics of grain-oriented electrical steel strip under an external compressive stress has always been a main focus in the process of magnetostriction measurement. There are difficulties in the measurement of magnetostriction, especially under compressive stress, mainly because the thickness of test specimen is small, and the test specimen is very easy to deform under the compressive stress. A weight should be placed on the test specimen to prevent a deformation of the test specimen when the measurement of magnetostriction characteristics under an externally compressive stress according to the IEC/TR 62581:2010. But how much weight and how to place aren’t concerned in IEC standard. In this paper, different weights were placed on the grain-oriented electrical steel test specimen under external compressive stress and zero stress. Through analyzed the measured magnetostriction data under different weights to determine the optimal measurement method of grain-oriented electrical steel strip under compressive stress and zero stress. The purpose of this paper is to find the most accurate and high reproducibility measurement method of magnetostriction, which can truly reflect the magnetostriction performance of grain-oriented electrical steel.

Additive Manufacturing of Magnetostrictive Fe-Co Alloys.

Fe–Co alloys are attracting attention as magnetostrictive materials for energy harvesting and sensor applications. This work investigated the magnetostriction characteristics and crystal structure of additive-manufactured Fe–Co alloys using directed energy deposition. The additive-manufactured Fe–Co parts tended to exhibit better magnetostrictive performance than the hot-rolled Fe–Co alloy. The anisotropy energy ΔK1 for the Fe–Co bulk, prepared under a power of 300 W (referred to as bulk−300 W), was larger than for the rolled sample. For the bulk−300 W sample in a particular plane, the piezomagnetic constant d was large, irrespective of the direction of the magnetic field. Elongated voids that formed during additive manufacturing changed the magnetostrictive behavior in a direction perpendicular to these voids. Magnetic property measurements showed that the coercivity decreased. Since sensors should be highly responsive, Fe–Co three-dimensional parts produced via additive manufacturing can be applied as force sensors.