Production Of Magnesium Metal Research Articles

Investigation of Alkane-Assisted dodecylamine on flotation desilication of magnesite Tailings: Molecular dynamics simulations and model optimization

Investigating the reverse flotation desilication process of magnesite tailings (MT) holds substantial merit in the context of magnesium metal recovery from solid waste. However, scant attention has been devoted to exploring the influence of the carbon chain length of diverse alkanes on the reverse flocfloatation desilication of MT. This research systematically delved into the selective adsorption behavior exhibited by dodecylamine (DDA) and its compound collectors on the surfaces of quartz and magnesite. As the carbon chain length of alkanes increases, the efficacy of reverse flotation desilication of MT diminishes. Under optimized conditions, the concentration of MgO in the concentrate registers a 0.93% increment, accompanied by a 2.05% reduction in SiO2 content. The optimal MgO grade attains 42.68%. The augmenting carbon chain length of alkanes leads to a decline in the dispersibility of the compound collector and a reduction in the diffusion coefficient of the monolayer film at the alkane/water interface. The compound collector, comprising n-heptane and DDA, manifests a noteworthy synergistic promotion effect on the flotation desilication of MT. This effect reduces the multilayer adsorption of DDA, promotes more hydrogen bonding formation, and favors DDA adsorption on the quartz surface over magnesite. Consequently, issues related to froth entrapment and poor selectivity are alleviated. Longer alkane chains in the compound collectors result in a stronger van der Waals force effect between the carbon chains. This effect causes DDDA to slide more easily on the quartz surface, which is not conducive to enhancing the hydrophobicity of the surface. Furthermore, alkane-induced hydrophobic flocculation increases the floccules size of quartz, enhancing the likelihood of bubble-particle adhesion. This investigation elucidates the molecular-level mechanism underlying alkane hydrophobic flocculation with varying chain lengths, contributing a theoretical foundation and technical support for the large-scale MT management and the sustainable production of magnesium metal.

Structural Characteristics and Cementitious Behavior of Magnesium Slag in Comparison with Granulated Blast Furnace Slag.

Magnesium slag is a type of industrial solid waste produced during the production of magnesium metal. In order to gain a deeper understanding of the structure of magnesium slag, the composition and microstructure of magnesium slag were investigated by using characterization methods such as X-ray fluorescence, particle size analysis, X-ray diffraction, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy. In addition, the state of Si occurrence in magnesium slag was analyzed using a solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance technique in comparison with granulated blast furnace slag. An inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometer and scanning electron microscope with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy were used to characterize their cementitious behavior. The results show that the chemical composition of magnesium slag mainly includes 54.71% CaO, 28.66% SiO2 and 11.82% MgO, and the content of Al2O3 is much lower than that of granulated blast furnace slag. Compared to granulated blast furnace slag, magnesium slag has a larger relative bridging oxygen number and higher [SiO4] polymerization degree. The cementitious activity of magnesium slag is lower compared to that of granulated blast furnace slag, but it can replace part of the cement to obtain higher compressive strength. Maximum compressive strength can be obtained when the amount of magnesium slag replacing cement is 20%, where the 28-day compressive strength can be up to 45.48 MPa. This work provides a relatively comprehensive analysis of the structural characteristics and cementitious behavior of magnesium slag, which is conducive to the promotion of magnesium slag utilization.

Laboratory technological research of magnesium intermediates preparation from the dolomites raw materials suitable for magnesium metal production

Metallic magnesium has been included in the list of Critical Mineral Raw Materials (CRM) for European Union countries since 2010. The territory of the Slovak Republic has large reserves of mineral raw materials – magnesite and dolomite, which are the initial source of metal Mg. For technological research, the following raw materials (based on chemical analyses of samples) were chosen: dolomite ore from the Sedlice deposit (SED-1), Trebejov deposit (TR-1) and dolomite ore from the Kraľovany deposit (KRA-1). The second deposit is also located near the operation of a potential customer of laboratory results for the production of metal magnesium, OFZ a.s. The aim of the laboratory technological research was to determine the experimental conditions for obtaining suitable Mg intermediates for metal magnesium preparation. For this purpose, there were performed DTA/TG and XRD analyses to study its behaviour, total mass loss and amount of carbon dioxide after calcination process. By optimizing the annealing tests of dolomite, products were obtained that met two conditions for its subsequent use in the sillicothermal process, namely the molecular ratio of CaO/MgO, content of impurities and the content of CO2. The optimization of calcination and repeated annealing pointed at the suitable conditions of dolomite raw sample processing (temperature of 1 050 °C for 2.5 hours, or 1 100 °C for 2 hours).

Magnesium production by molten salt electrolysis with liquid tin cathode and multiple effect distillation.

Low-cost clean primary production of magnesium metal is important for its use in many applications, from light-weight structural components to energy technologies. This work describes new experiments and cost and emissions analysis for a magnesium metal production process. The process combines molten salt electrolysis of MgO using MgF₂-CaF₂ electrolyte and a reactive liquid tin cathode, with gravity-driven multiple effect thermal system (G-METS) distillation to separate out the magnesium product, and re-use of the tin. Electrolysis experiments with carbon anodes showed current yield above 90%, while a yttria-stabilized zirconia solid oxide membrane (SOM) anode experiment showed 84% current yield. G-METS distillation is an important component of the envisioned process. It can potentially lower costs and energy use considerably compared with conventional magnesium distillation. Techno-economic analysis including detailed mass and energy balances shows that this electrolyte composition could lower costs by utilizing CaO, which is the primary impurity in MgO, as the Hall-Héroult process uses the sodium impurity in alumina. Analysis options include: raw material types (magnesite rock vs. brine or seawater), drying and calcining using electricity vs. natural gas, and carbon vs. SOM anode type. Using SOM inert anodes results in a cost premium around 10%-15%, mostly due to higher electrical energy usage resulting from membrane resistance, and reduces GHG emissions by approximately 1kg CO₂/kg Mg product. Capital and operating cost estimates, and cradle to gate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions analysis under several raw material and process technology scenarios, show comparable costs and emissions to those of aluminum production.

Hydration of magnesite and dolomite minerals: new insights from ab initio molecular dynamics

Magnesite (MgCO3) and dolomite [(Mg,Ca)(CO3)2] are the main minerals involved in the production of magnesium metal, which is considered as a critical raw material in the EU and USA. In this study, we investigated the hydration mechanisms of (101̅4) magnesite and dolomite surface by static density functional theory relaxations and ab initio molecular dynamics simulations. For both minerals, the dissociative adsorption of water was unfavored compared to the molecular adsorption, which displayed an adsorption energy of −101.2 kJ mol−1 and −94.2 kJ mol−1 for magnesite and dolomite, respectively. In the case of dolomite, the adsorption of water was slightly favored on the surface calcium ions compared to magnesium ions, which was attributed to stronger interactions between the hydrogen atoms of water and the oxygen atoms of the surface. Then, the coverage was gradually increased to reach a monolayer: the adsorption energies for magnesite displayed a slight increase with increasing coverage, whereas dolomite exhibited no sensitivity to water coverage. Using ab initio molecular dynamics simulations conducted at 300 K, we showed that, beyond the first layer, water displayed a clustering behavior induced by the intermolecular interactions, while the isosteric enthalpies of adsorption continuously decreased with increasing coverage, due to the screening effect of deeper water layers. When more water molecules were added, until reaching the complete hydration of magnesite and dolomite surfaces, a refined water structuration emerged: a significant layering effect was exhibited, due to highly-organized layers, until 8–10 Å from the surface, which therefore corresponded to the distance at which the surface had no more effect on water layers. Overall, magnesite exhibited a larger affinity for water than dolomite, including adsorption energies and structuration of water, which provides new insights in the understanding of the fine surface mechanisms involved in the subsequent flotation process.

A novel pathway for the preparation of Mg metal from magnesia

High-purity anhydrous magnesium chloride was prepared from magnesia and ammonium chloride. The chlorination process was analyzed and then the critical stages affecting the purity of anhydrous magnesium chloride were pinpointed. The effect of sample dimension on the above critical stages was investigated respectively. The purity guarantee mechanism of anhydrous magnesium chloride was proposed. After that, magnesium metal was obtained via electrolyzing the anhydrous magnesium chloride-containing molten salt. The new process for the continuous production of magnesium metal from magnesia was proposed and discussed. The incomplete chlorination reaction and the hydrolysis of anhydrous magnesium chloride are the two critical stages affecting the purity of the anhydrous magnesium chloride. The dimension of the sample can influence reaction process and reaction mechanism, and thus the problems of incomplete chlorination reaction and hydrolysis can be solved together. The magnesia content in anhydrous magnesium chloride was below 0.1 wt.% when the ratio of height to diameter of the sample was over 2.43. The content of impurities in the magnesium metal obtained met the specifications of the product Mg9980. The current efficiency was (94.7±1.8)% and the electricity consumption was (9107±97) kW h/t.

Magnesium-Containing Slurry as Technogenic Alternative Raw Material for Magnesium Oxychloride Cement

It has been shown experimentally that a waste of magnesium metal production is a realistic alternative to naturally occurring cement raw materials. The waste is the carnallite slurry forming during the chlorination stage. The slurry contains magnesium oxide (MgO) and magnesium chloride (MgCl2) in a mass ratio close to their optimal ratio when preparing Sorel cement. It is found that the magnesium oxide in the slurry is highly reactive. MgO extracted from the slurry and MgCl2 solution are mixed forming homogeneous magnesium oxychloride cement (MOC) paste in which bonding crystalline structures typical for Sorel cement are formed during hardening.

Investigation of continuous carbothermal reduction of magnesia by magnesium vapor condensation onto a moving bed of solid particles

Magnesium metal production by carbothermic reduction (CTR) can reduce process emissions and energy requirements relative to silicothermic or electrolytic production, if high magnesium metal yields are achieved. A novel process was investigated where product magnesium gas condensed onto a moving bed of solid particles at high temperatures (≥300 °C) and in vacuum to minimize reversion and promote crystal growth. Using a half-system in which CTR product gases were artificially generated, magnesium continuously condensed onto steel, oxide, or carbide particles at yields >85% for PMg = 0.5 kPa. Steel particles exhibited the greatest bed retention and ease of separation, so this medium was used for scale-up to a full-system in which MgO CTR in a fixed bed gasifier at 1400 °C–1550 °C produced Mg(g) and CO. The initial reduction resulted in high Mg yield (>80%), but yield decreased as the reaction proceeded. The accumulation of Mg(s) and reversion product in the condenser promoted further reversion. The process yield could likely be improved by using high surface area particles to promote heat and mass transfer, allowing for shorter solid and gas residence times in the condenser. A finite volume model on the reactor tube and pellet bed described the kinetics, heat transfer, and mass transfer phenomena in the reduction reactor. The model predicted that the center of the bed was >50 °C cooler than the furnace, and the product gas pressures were near equilibrium. A wide and directly heated reactor could overcome these heat and mass transfer limitations.

Design and Fabrication of Pellets for Magnesium Production by Carbothermal Reduction

For carbothermal reduction (CTR) to be an economic and clean process for magnesium metal production, operational challenges must be overcome. Strong and reactive precursor pellets are necessary to effectively and selectively produce Mg(g) from any feedstock. In this study, the effects of ore (magnesia and dolime), carbon (petroleum coke, charcoal, algal char, and carbon black), and binder (organic and inorganic) on pellet strength and reactivity, product yield and purity, and reduction selectivity were analyzed. Theoretically and experimentally, the CTR of dolime (MgO·CaO) favored MgO reduction over CaO reduction; however, with enough carbon and heat, both oxides could be reduced. CaO carbothermal reduction produced CaC2 and Ca(g). The selectivity to CaC2 remained constant (7 ± 4 pct) for all C/MgO·CaO ratios analyzed, while the selectivity to Ca(g) increased (5 pct → 40 pct) when C/MgO·CaO was increased from 0.5 to 2.0. As the overall metal yield decreased (77.6 pct → 59.7 pct) with increasing CaO reduction (38.2 pct → 78.1 pct), Ca(g) reverted faster than Mg(g). Heavy metal impurities primarily remained in the residue ( 78 pct volatilized). Organic binders added reducing power to the pellets but produced frail pellets (radial crush strength = 9.1 ± 0.7 N) after pyrolysis, relative to pellets with inorganic binders (15.1 ± 3.2 N). Kinetic parameters were determined for extruded pellets to predict the reaction rate as a continuous function of pressure and temperature.

Effect of Reductant Type on the Metallothermic Magnesium Production Process

AbstractThis paper is a contribution to the theoretical and quantitative understanding of the processes for the production of magnesium metal by metallothermic process in vacuum (Pidgeon Process). In the present study, effects of reductant type and amount were investigated. CaC2 is a low-cost alternative to FeSi (ferrosilicon) which is the common reductant in the Pidgeon Process. CaC2 slightly decreases the Mg recovery ratios but it remarkably decreases the process cost. The experimental study, conducted with the change of mass % FeSi–CaC2 ratio at 1,250 °C for 360 min, the optimum Mg recovery was measured as 94.7 % at 20 % CaC2 addition. Also aluminum, as a reductant, allows conducting the process at lower temperatures than that of FeSi. For the experiments conducted with Al addition, the highest Mg recovery ratio was measured as 88.0 % in the conditions for 300 min process duration and 100 % stoichiometric Al addition at 1,200 °C.

Studies on dissolution kinetics of dolime in electrothermal magnesium slag

The electrothermal process of magnesium metal production is a promising route, where large sized internally heated reactor is used for magnesium production resulting in less energy and labour intensive and high space-time yield process. However, the dissolution behavior of dolime in the electrothermal slag has been found critical for the process optimization. In this paper, the dissolution kinetics of the dolime in the slag was discussed. Quaternary slag (CaO-Al2O3-SiO2-MgO) was prepared having basicity CaO/SiO2 ≥ 1.8 and Al2O3/SiO2 ≥ 0.26 for dolime dissolution studies by static hot dip method. Prior to the experiments, FactSage calculations were carried out varying temperatures and slag compositions. In the kinetic studies, dolime particles 10–15 mm size was added in slag melted at 1450, 1500 and 1550°C and samples were taken at various time intervals. The chemical analysis of slag sample was carried out to investigate the dissolution kinetics to establish the rate expression. The activation energy for the process was calculated for different models used in study and was found to be in the range of 130–270 kJ/mol. SEM analysis was done for surface analysis of reacted particles. This study would be helpful in optimizing the dolime charging rate during pilot scale trials for electrothermal magnesium production at CSIR-NML, Jamshedpur.

Synthesis of a novel slow-release potassium fertilizer from modified Pidgeon magnesium slag by potassium carbonate

ABSTRACTA novel slow-release potassium fertilizer (SPF) was synthesized using Pidgeon magnesium slag (PMS) and potassium carbonate, which could minimize fertilizer nutrient loss and PMS disposal problems. Orthogonal experiments were conducted to determine the optimum conditions for synthesis. The potassium (K)-bearing compounds of SPF existed mainly in the form of crystalline phases Ca1.197K0.166SiO4, K2MgSiO4, and K4CaSi3O9, and in the noncrystalline phase. The active silicon content of SPF was 2.09 times as much as that of magnesium slag, and the slow-release character of SPF met the requirement for partly slow-release fertilizer in the national standard (GB/T23348-2009). The best models for describing the K release kinetics in water and 2% citric acid were the Elovich model and the first-order model, respectively. The heavy metal contents of SPF conformed to the national standard for organic–inorganic compound fertilizers, and the leaching mass concentrations of heavy metals and Fluorine were far lower than the limit values of the identification standard for hazardous waste identification for extraction toxicity (GB5085.3-2007), and also met the class II quality standard for ground water. The environmental risk of SPF is therefore very low, but because SPF is alkaline, its effect on soil pH should be taken into account.Implications: PMS is the solid waste resulting from the production of magnesium metal by Pidgeon’s reduction process. Utilization of PMS in the high-technology and high-value areas may promote the high-efficiency development of worldwide collection metallic magnesium industry and contribute to the reduction of emissions of fine dust to air. This paper presents one of the new techniques in the use of PMS as a slow-release fertilizer by adding K2CO3. The product can serve as a very cost-effective and reliable artificial fertilizer.

Comprehensive Conversion of Magnesium-Containing Slurry into Readily Saleable Materials. Part 2. Preparation of Magnesium Oxide and Carnallite from Technogenic Raw Material*

A method and technology are described for preparing magnesium oxide and synthetic carnallite from technogenic raw material, i.e., carnallite chlorate slurry formed in the second stage of carnallite melt dehydration in magnesium metal production by an electrochemical method.

Comprehensive Conversion of Magnesium-Containing Slurry into Readily Saleable Materials. Part 1. Utilization of Magnesium Production Slurry in Magnesia Cement Material

Results are given for processing magnesium-containing slurry formed in the stage of thorough dehydration of molten carnallite during magnesium metal production. A resource saving technology and a production line are developed for processing magnesium production slurry into magnesia cement.

Magnesium: Industrial and Research Developments Over the Last 15 Years

Global magnesium production has doubled since 2000. Production is now dominated by China, which accounts for about 80% of the total. Production in the rest of the world has actually declined since 2000. Magnesium is a relatively low-cost option for achieving weight reduction beyond that attainable with aluminum. The price of magnesium has been relatively stable because of a price spike in 2008. Analysis of research papers published on magnesium alloys shows an order of magnitude increase in numbers since 2000. As is the case for magnesium metal production, the Asian contribution has had a large effect, with Chinese authors accounting for over 40% of all publications in the period of 2009 to 2013. The fields of study in magnesium alloys show significant deviations from existing commercial applications, with wrought-magnesium alloys having far greater representation in research papers compared to components, i.e., real items made of magnesium alloys used in commercial applications. Corrosion and corrosion p...

Evaluation of Zefreh Dolomite (Central Iran) for Production of Magnesium via the Pidgeon Process

This study evaluates the production of magnesium metal from the Zefreh dolomite ore of Central Iran using the Pidgeon process. The investigation consisted of mineralogical and chemical characterization of the dolomite ore, calcining, chemical characterization, LOI (loss on ignition) determination, reduction tests on the calcined dolomite (dolime), using Iranian (Semnan) ferrosilicon and mineralogical, and chemical characterization of the reactants and products. Calcining of dolomite samples was carried out at approximately 1400°C in order to remove CO2, moisture, and other easily volatilized impurities. The dolime was then milled, along with ferrosilicon, thoroughly mixed, and briquetted. The briquettes were heated at 1125°C--1150°C and 500 Pa in a tube reactor for 10--12 hours to extract the magnesium. The ferrosilicon to dolime ratio was determined based on the chemical analyses of the two reactants, using as a guide, and Mintek's Pyrosim software package. Magnesium extraction varied with ferrosilicon addition and with the dolime used, and reach about 80% under optimal conditions. The levels of major impurities encountered in the magnesium crown were similar to those in the crude metal production.

Research on Slaked Magnesium Slag as a Raw Material and Blend for Portland Cement

The magnesium slag is discarded from production of magnesium metal from dolomite. However the magnesium slag is slaked in some factories by means of sprinkling water to prevent from dust pollution. The possibility of slaked magnesium slag (SMS) to play a role of raw material and blend for portland cement was investigated by experiments of raw mix preparation, clinker calcining and property determination of cement pastes and mortars. The results revealed that SMS was still reactive. The raw mix with SMS was of excellent burnability that would contribute to energy saving. As a raw material, SMS can be used for calcining clinker of good quality; and as a blend it is suitable for production of ordinary portland cements. Because the magnesium slag is slaked, SMS has no problem on soundness. Higher strength of cement can be obtained in form of binary blends consisting of SMS and ground granulated blast-furnace slag or fly ash.

Research on Slaked Magnesium Slag as a Mineral Admixture for Concrete

The magnesium slag is discarded from production of magnesium metal from dolomite. However the magnesium slag is slaked in some factories by means of sprinkling water to prevent from dust pollution. The possibility of slaked magnesium slag (SMS) to play a role of mineral admixture for concrete was investigated by experiments of mortars and concretes prepared with SMS. The results revealed that SMS was still reactive. When SMS is substituted for 30% of cement, its reactivity index is equivalent to that of grade I fly ash (FA). And when SMS is used as mineral admixture to prepare concrete, it contributes to strength of concrete no less than S95 ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS). Better effect of binary or ternary blend can be obtained by combining SMS with GGBS and/or FA. Because the magnesium slag is slaked, SMS has no problem on soundness, so it can be applied in concrete as mineral admixture.

Comparative study on the molecular and electronic structure of MgCl2· 6 NH3 and MgCl2· 6H2O

ABSTRACTAnhydrous magnesium chloride is the preferred raw material for electrolytic production of magnesium metal; however, it is not possible to fully dehydrate magnesium chloride by heating in air because of hydrolytic decomposition. The dehydration should be carried out in hydrogen chloride gas atmosphere, or by a process where the intermediate hexammoniate magnesium chloride (MgCl2·6 NH3) is calcined at high temperature to remove the six crystal ammonia. The most popular process to prepare MgCl2·6 NH3 is an organic solvent process which is energy efficient and exhibits good quality control. Recently, we prepared high‐purity anhydrous MgCl2 by a coupling reactive crystallization (CRC) process. In this study, quantum chemistry calculations based on the method of density functional theory (DFT) were used to determine the molecular and electronic structure of MgCl2·6 NH3 and MgCl2·6H2O at the levels of B3LYP/6‐31G* and B3LYP/6‐311G*, respectively. These results were compared with available experimental results. The DFT results show that for model MgCl2·6H2O, the bond lengths of R[OMg] and O atom Mulliken charges can be classified into three levels, each level has two crystals of water. As a result, the six crystal water will be removed by three steps, two crystals of water in each step. However, for model MgCl2·6 NH3, the bond lengths of R[NMg] and N atom Mulliken charges are classified into two levels, four crystal ammonia will be removed in the first step and two crystal ammonia will be removed in the second step. The calculations are verified by TG and DTA data from the literature and by our experiments. This study is significant for better understanding the thermal decomposition mechanism and laboratory preparation of MgCl2·6 NH3 and anhydrous MgCl2. Copyright © 2010 Curtin University of Technology and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The chemistry and technology of magnesia

Preface. Acknowledgments. 1 History of Magnesia. 1.1 History of Magnesia. 2 Formation and Occurrence of Magnesite and Brucite. 2.1 Introduction. 2.2 Sedimentary Magnesite-Basis for Carbonate Deposition. 2.3 Serpentine Alteration by Hydrothermal Processes. 2.4 Cryptocrystalline Magnesite Formation by Infiltration. 2.5 Crystalline Magnesite-Replacement of Limestone and Dolomite. 2.6 Brucite. 2.7 Worldwide Occurrence of Magnesite and Brucite. 2.8 Physical and Chemical Properties of Magnesite. 2.9 Chemical and Physical Properties of Brucite. 3 Synthetic Magnesia. 3.1 Introduction. 3.2 Composition of Seawater and Brines. 3.3 Process Description. 3.4 Calcination. 3.5 Grinding. 3.6 Packaging. 3.7 Sampling and Testing and In-Process Quality Control. 3.8 Aman Process. 3.9 General Properties of Synthetic Magnesia. 4 Mining and Processing Magnesite. 4.1 Mining Operations. 4.2 Processing Magnesite. 4.3 Gravity Concentration. 4.4 Tertiary Crushing. 4.5 Postcalcination Screening and Grinding. 5 Calcination of Magnesium Hydroxide and Carbonate. 5.1 Calcination of Magnesite. 5.2 Calcination of Magnesium Hydroxide. 6 Furnaces and Kilns. 6.1 Introduction. 6.2 Multiple-Hearth Furnaces. 6.3 Horizontal Rotary Kilns. 6.4 External Water Coolers. 6.5 Shaft Kilns. 7 Postcalcination Processing. 7.1 Introduction. 7.2 Grinding. 8 Physical and Chemical Properties of Magnesium Oxide. 8.1 Introduction. 8.2 Physical Properties of Magnesium Oxide. 8.3 Chemical Properties of Magnesium Oxide. 8.4 Surface Structures of MgO. 8.5 Molecular Adsorption on MgO. 9 Other Magnesia Products. 9.1 Production of Hard-Burned Magnesia. 9.2 Production of Dead-Burned Magnesia. 9.3 Fused Magnesia. 9.4 Magnesium Hydroxide Slurry. 9.5 Purification by Carbonation of Magnesium Hydroxide Slurry. 10 Water and Wastewater Applications for Magnesia Products. 10.1 Introduction to Applications. 10.2 Industrial Wastewater Treatment. 10.3 Advantages of Magnesium Hydroxide in Wastewater Treatment. 10.4 Adsorption of Dyes on Magnesium Hydroxide. 10.5 Biological Wastewater Treatment. 10.6 Bioflocculation and Solids Settling. 10.7 Phosphorus Removal from Wastewater and Struvite Formation. 10.8 Odor and Corrosion Control in Sanitary Collection Systems. 10.9 Acid Mine Drainage. 10.10 Silica Removal from Industrial Plant Water. 11 Magnesia in Polymer Applications. 11.1 Magnesium Hydroxide as a Flame Retardant for Polymer Applications. 11.2 Flame-Retardant Mechanisms. 11.3 Properties Required of Magnesium Hydroxide for Flame-Retardant Applications. 11.4 Novel Applications for Magnesium Hydroxide as a Flame Retardant. 11.5 Polymer Curing and Thickening. 12 Environmental Applications. 12.1 Flue Gas Desulfurization. 12.2 Regenerative Process. 12.3 Remediation Applications. 12.4 Nuclear Waste Disposal. 12.5 Hazardous Spill Cleanup. 12.6 Antibacterial Activity of Magnesium Oxide Powder. 12.7 Carbon Dioxide Sequestration Using Brucite. 13 Role of Magnesium in Animal, Plant, and Human Nutrition. 13.1 Role of Magnesium in Plant Nutrition. 13.2 Magnesium Fertilizers. 13.3 Magnesium in Animal Nutrition. 13.4 Magnesium in Human Health and Nutrition. 14 Magnesium Salts and Magnesium Metal. 14.1 Magnesium Acetate. 14.2 Magnesium Alkyls. 14.3 Magnesium Chloride. 14.4 Magnesium Nitrate. 14.5 Magnesium Sulfate. 14.6 Magnesium Soaps. 14.7 Magnesium Overbase Sulfonates. 14.8 Magnesium Peroxide. 14.9 Magnesium Metal Production. 15 Pulp Applications. 15.1 Sulfite Pulping. 15.2 Magnefite Pulping Process. 15.3 Pulp Bleaching. 15.4 Deinking. 16 Magnesia Cements. 16.1 Introduction. 16.2 Magnesium Oxychloride Cement. 16.3 Magnesium Oxysulfate (MOS) Cement. 16.4 Thermal Insulative and Fire Resistance Properties of Sorel Cement. 16.5 Magnesium Phosphate Cement. 17 Miscellaneous Magnesia Applications. 17.1 Sugar Manufacture. 17.2 Chrome Tanning of Leather. 17.3 Magnesia as a Catalyst Support. 17.4 Fuel Additives. 17.5 Well-Drilling Fluids. 17.6 Nanoparticulate Magnesia. 17.7 Transformer Steel Coating. Appendix. Index.