Machakos District Research Articles

The Impact of the African Inland Mission (AIM) On Social Change between 1895 and 1971 in Machakos District, Kenya

This study aimed at analysing the African Inland Mission and social transformation in Machakos District of Eastern Kenya from 1895 to 1971. It sought to establish how the elements of the Akamba social life underwent a social change as a result of the mission's presence in the district. The study was guided by the question: How effective was the mission in influencing social change in the district? The structural- functionalism theory formulated by Herbert Spencer and developed further by Emile Durkheim was used to analyse the role of the African Inland Mission in influencing social change in Machakos District. The qualitative research design involving the use of in-depth interviews with key informants was used. A target population consisting of local residents, former administrators and African Inland Mission/church leaders was interviewed. The study used the purposive method of sampling. Primary data was collected using in-depth oral interviews as well as from archival records, while secondary data was obtained through a thematic review of literature related to the topic of study. This study has provided sufficient knowledge on the African Inland Mission and the social transformation in Machakos District in the colonial and the early post-colonial periods of Kenyan history. In addition, the findings have constituted part of the historiography of the African Inland Mission in Kenya.

English

Many human societies across the world have collapsed or almost gone into extinction because of the scarcity of natural resources. Others however, have survived by either migrating to seek for natural resources elsewhere or by transition and/or adaptation to new environmental conditions. This narrative review paper examines how a society of Machakos District in Kenya has managed to escape from a potential collapse driven by natural resources’ scarcity. The review found that most societies in developing countries have failed to: (i) successfully repack natural resources management information into stories that motivate collective action, and (ii) invest in institutional improvement, innovation and technological changes through the influence of political leaders and economic elites. This paper recommends that for developing countries to successfully avoid societal collapse due the scarcity of natural resources, there is need to follow similar pathways like the society of the Machakos District in Kenya. Key words: Natural resources management, developing countries, societal collapse, population growth, Malthus, Geertz, Boserup.

Does strengthening technical capacity of smallholder farmers enhance adoption of conservation practices? The case of conservation agriculture with trees in Kenya

Despite decades of agricultural extension programmes, participatory research projects and efforts to encourage knowledge integration and sharing, few smallholder farmers are adopting natural resource management (NRM) practices. Using an agroforestry (AF)-based conservation practice known as conservation agriculture with trees as a case study, this study aims at contributing to the growing debate that a properly designed training programme enhances adoption of knowledge intensive NRM practices by providing resource poor farmers with the opportunity to learn, test and adapt such practices to suit their resource needs. To control for endogeneity in participation in training and assess the effect of training on adoption, we estimate an instrumental variable probit model using cross sectional data collected in 2013 from 198 farm households in Machakos district in Kenya. One key message emanating from the study, which is critical for development practitioners who are keen on up-scaling AF based conservation practices through training, is that strengthening technical capacity of smallholder farmers is necessary but it is not in itself sufficient to stimulate adoption of conservation practices. Instead, institutional factors like good road infrastructure that help reduce transaction costs associated with the search for information on technologies and markets and resource endowments in form of labour and land provide synergistic effects. Consequently, complementary strategies such as the introduction of cost effective labour saving technologies and the provision of enabling environment through public–private partnerships for farmers to access the technologies and inputs that are critical for implementing the skills acquired during the training are prerequisites for adoption.

Factors That Influence Technical Efficiency of Sorghum Production: A Case of Small Holder Sorghum Producers in Lower Eastern Kenya

Majority of the rural households in Kenya depend on agriculture as a source of food and livelihood. Agricultural productivity has been declining due to many factors resulting in increased food insecurity in the country. Consequently, there is a renewed interest in promoting drought-tolerant crops such as sorghum which thrives in the arid and semiarid lands of the developing world. However, performance of sorghum production among the smallholder farmers has still remained low. This study was thus carried out to identify factors that influence technical efficiency of sorghum production among smallholder farmers in Machakos and Makindu districts of the lower eastern Kenya. Collected data on farm and farmer characteristics were analysed by use of descriptive statistics and Tobit model. Result highlights show that technical efficiency was influenced positively by formal education level of the household, experience in sorghum farming, membership in farmers associations, use of hired labour, production advice, and use of manure. Surprisingly household size, meant to enhance labour, had a negative influence. To increase technical efficiency, efforts should focus on improving information flows on agronomic practices. Farmers should also be encouraged to form and actively participate in various farmers associations, which enhance learning and pooling of labour resources, hence improving technical efficiency.

Phytoplankton patterns along a series of small man-made reservoirs in Kenya

We studied nine small man-made reservoirs located in different climate regions of Kenya to get an insight into the relationship between phytoplankton community structure and its environment. The investigated ponds form three groups of three reservoirs each found in the rural areas of Machakos district, Mount Kenya region, and Lake Victoria area with varied climatic characteristics. The ponds were sampled in monthly intervals between May 2007 and June 2008 for physicochemical variables including water chemistry, phytoplankton community composition, zooplankton abundance, and bacterial numbers. All ponds were classified as hypertrophic. Seasonal changes were reflected in the phytoplankton pattern, as all ponds showed a community shift after the short dry season in February. Due to high nutrient loads and increased turbidity, Cyanobacteria, which were initially thought to be predominating in all investigated water bodies, were found to play only a minor role except for the Bomet reservoir in Lake Victoria region. Instead, Chloro- and Streptophyta, Dinophyta, and Euglenophyta were abundant in the pelagial. A principal component analysis explained around 85% of the data variance with four principal components (PCs) interpreted as "location", "ions", "zooplankton", and "particulate matter". A clear separation of ponds with and without cattle access based on algal species community data was found indicating the need for a sustainable use and regular monitoring program as the local population is largely dependent on these sensitive small-scale ecosystems.

Spatial Distribution of Greenhouse Commercial Horticulture in Kenya and the Role of Demographic, Infrastructure and Topo-Edaphic Factors

Greenhouse commercial horticulture in Kenya started more than two decades ago and has evolved to be a significant sector to the national economy. So far no studies have explored the spatial patterns and dynamics of the area under greenhouse cultivation. Google Earth archives alongside data from various portals provided an opportunity to study those farms’ spatial distribution. The roles of selected topo-edaphic, infrastructure and demographics factors that might influence current location within sub-watersheds in central highlands of Kenya are also examined. Results reveal a non-uniform spread with two high clusters; one in the semi-arid sub-watersheds 3AB shared by Kajiado and Machakos districts and the other is in sub-humid sub-watersheds 3BA shared by Kiambu and Nairobi districts. Multivariate linear regression analysis reveals four statistically significant parameters; population density (p < 0.01), number of dams (p < 0.01), average rainfall (p < 0.01) and average slope (p < 0.05) in predicting the number of greenhouse farms. Soil attributes are not significantly related with greenhouse farming in this study. Findings indicate that greenhouse commercial horticulture is heterogeneous, and rapidly expanding beyond the central highlands towards marginal semi-arid zones in Kenya. These findings are applicable in policy and decision making processes that aid the horticulture sector’s progress in a sustainable manner.

Vocal local versus pharmacological treatments for pain management in tubal ligation procedures in rural Kenya: a non-inferiority trial

BackgroundVocal local (VL) is a non-pharmacological pain management technique for gynecological procedures. In Africa, it is usually used in combination with pharmacological analgesics. However, analgesics are associated with side-effects, and can be costly and subject to frequent stock-outs, particularly in remote rural settings. We compared the effectiveness of VL + local anesthesia + analgesics (the standard approach), versus VL + local anesthesia without analgesics, on pain and satisfaction levels for women undergoing tubal ligations in rural Kenya.MethodsWe conducted a site-randomised non-inferiority trial of 884 women receiving TLs from 40 Marie Stopes mobile outreach sites in Kisii and Machakos Districts. Twenty sites provided VL + local anesthesia + analgesics (control), while 20 offered VL + local anesthesia without additional analgesics (intervention). Pain was measured using a validated 11-point Numeric Rating Scale; satisfaction was measured using 11-point scales.ResultsA total of 461 women underwent tubal ligations with VL + local anesthesia, while 423 received tubal ligations with VL + local anesthesia + analgesics. The majority were aged ≥30 years (78%), and had >3 children (99%). In a multivariate analysis, pain during the procedure was not significantly different between the two groups. The pain score after the procedure was significantly lower in the intervention group versus the control group (by 0.40 points; p = 0.041). Satisfaction scores were equally high in both groups; 96% would recommend the procedure to a friend.ConclusionVL + local anesthesia is as effective as VL + local anesthesia + analgesics for pain management during tubal ligation in rural Kenya. Avoiding analgesics is associated with numerous benefits including cost savings and fewer issues related to the maintenance, procurement and monitoring of restricted opioid drugs, particularly in remote low-resource settings where these systems are weak.Trial registrationPan-African Clinical Trials Registry PACTR201304000495942.

English

  This paper derives logistic models for Grant's gazelle Gazella granti, Thompson's gazelle(Gazella Thompsonii) and plains Zebra (Equus burchellii), in a game ranching system. The study was conducted on an 8100 hectares savannah ecosystem in Machakos district, with an average annual rainfall of 514±159.3 mm. Modelled as discrete-time logistic equations with fixed carrying capacities, it captures the wildlife herbivore population dynamics. Time series data, covering a period of 16 years, is used to generate the fixed carrying capacities and the interaction parameters endogenously. The estimation of the logistic models involves estimation of econometric models for each herbivore species, followed by the recovery of the carrying capacities, mathematically. The model-generated carrying capacities are 144.30 AU, 75.53 AU and 54.65 AU; the equivalent number of animals is 986, 929 and 144; for Grant’s gazelle, Thompson’s gazelle and Zebra, respectively. The derived “maximum sustainable yield” (MSY) stocking levels is 44 AU, 24 AU and 29 AU; the equivalent animal number is 297, 393 and 76; for Grant’s gazelle, Thompson’s gazelle and Zebra, respectively. Similarly, the MSY off-take level is 10.42 AU, 8.39 AU and 6.37 AU for these species respectively. These results show that the discrete-time logistic models are applicable to sustainable management of game ranching enterprise.   Key words: Carrying capacity, animal units, game ranching, species mix, logistic models, MSY.

A qualitative investigation of use and adoption of mobile money in Kenya: a domestication approach

The paper introduces original research findings and conclusions from a qualitative analysis of use and adoption of mobile money in Kenya using the domestication approach. We applied the dimension of domestication as an analytic tool to explain the acquisition, incorporation and conversion of the mobile money technology into the everyday life of its users. The data gathered include a series of focus group discussions, semi-structured interviews and participatory observations with members of the Machakos District in Kenya. It identifies satisfaction as an important mediator between the incorporation and conversion phases of the domestication process. Further, it presents findings that provide empirical support that adoption can be best explained as a process, which includes an initial appropriation, consumption and adoption and shows the influence of social networks, daily practices and norms, on all phases of the adoption process.

Educational Behavior of Children not in Preschool The Case study of Machakos District, Kenya

The research was designed to investigate Activities of Three to Six Year Old Children not in Preschool, The Case study of Machakos District, Kenya in Machakos District in Kenya in East Africa. This research addresses the daily activities of three to six year old children not in preschool in Machakos District, Kenya. The participants comprised 287 children and 287 of their parents/ guardians. The study found that both boys and girls of three to six years of age undertook same activities in their homesteads. However, there were society's stereotyped activities for children of different gender and age. Additionally, the results indicated that playing, which featured as the main children's daily activity, was rated as un- important by parents/ guardians. Other activities were babysitting, cooking/housework, cultivating, grazing and fetching water and firewood. These activities, which seemingly contribute towards the society's welfare, compromised the education of three to six year old children not in preschools. The results of the study are crucial for setting a plan on how these children can be facilitated to grow and develop to the full. The paper recommends having a parental/ guardian programme geared towards ensuring children's rights to education play and protection.

Preliminary investigation of contractile activity of Ricinus communis and Euclea divinorum extracts on isolated rabbit uterine strips

Ricinus communis and Euclea divinorum of the family Euphorbiaceae and Ebenaceae, respectively, are traditionally used by Traditional Birth Attendants (TBAs) in Machakos district of Kenya to induce or augment labor, manage protracted labor, post-partum hemorrhage and retained after birth. Ethno-pharmacological relevance of the study will be the provision of scientific evidence and justification for the ethnic use of both plants as oxytocic agents in the initiation of labor, treatment of prolonged labor, post-partum hemorrhage and retained placenta. Materials and methodsThe plants were harvested in the wild, identified and voucher specimens preserved. The root bark was processed to powder form, from which aqueous and ethanol extracts were obtained. Each of the extracts was separately tested on isolated uterine muscle tissue from non-pregnant and pregnant rabbits. The effect on contraction frequency (number of contractions per second) in the absence or presence of oxytocin was evaluated statistically using ANOVA. P values <0.05 were considered significant. Results and conclusionsAll uteri exhibited a strong initial contraction following exposure to the aqueous and ethanol root bark extracts of both plants. After recovery, the resumed contraction frequencies varied with the plant extract and exogenous hormone. The results show that the extracts of both plants were able to stimulate uterine tissue contractility directly and to augment the tissue's response to oxytocin. The increase in uterine contractions as a percentage relative to negative controls was particularly significant in pregnant rabbit tissues in the presence of oxytocin, where increments of up to 245% were observed. Further pharmacological studies are however required to determine the active principles, possible mechanisms of action, efficacy and safety margins of the plant extracts.

Sun-dried cowpeas and amaranth leaves recipe improves β-carotene and retinol levels in serum and hemoglobin concentration among preschool children

Vitamin A deficiency (VAD) and anemia are major challenges among children and expecting and lactating mothers in developing countries. Intervention with locally available dark green leafy vegetables (DGLV) is more sustainable to eradicate VAD, being cost-effective and readily adaptable to local communities. DGLV contain high levels of iron and β-carotene (BC) and therefore useful in fighting VAD and anemia. Since DGLVs are season-dependent sun-drying enables their availability during low seasons. However, their contribution to the bioavailability of BC and the improvement of hemoglobin are not well understood. The study therefore investigated the effect of consuming cooked recipe consisting of sun-dried amaranth and cowpea leaves on the levels of BC, retinol, and hemoglobin in preschool children from Machakos District, a semiarid region in Kenya. Vegetables were purchased from local vegetable market, with some sun-dried in an open shade. Levels of BC and retinol in serum and BC in fresh and processed vegetables were determined by a HPLC method and hemoglobin using a portable Hemocue Analyzer. All-trans-BC levels in uncooked fresh cowpea and amaranth leaves were 806.0 μg/g and 599.0 μg/g dry matter, respectively, while the dehydration and cooking processes retained the β-carotene levels at over 60 %. Consumption of the dehydrated vegetables significantly improved both serum BC and retinol levels (p < 0.05), while the baseline hemoglobin levels improved by 4.6 %. The study has shown that intervention with locally available sun-dried vegetables improves the bioavailability of BC, retinol, and hemoglobin levels among preschool children.

Trace Element Concentrations in Some Traditional Diets Consumed in Selected Parts of Eastern Province of Kenya

Dietary quality is vital in maintaining sound nutritional status. The ecological conditions thus influence the type of diets and their nutritional quality. The purpose of this study was to determine the trace element/mineral content of some of the commonly consumed diets in Machakos, Kitui, Makueni and Mwingi districts. Decorticated maize, beans and finger millet flour samples were purchased from the local markets. For each category, a total of ten samples were collected from each district. The samples were put in plastic bags, sealed and transported to the laboratory in the Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology, University of Nairobi for preparation and analysis. The cooking of the samples was carried out according to local traditional methods. In the decorticated samples, mean copper concentrations were observed to be below 20 μg·g-1; mean zinc concentrations ranged from 34 to 63 μg·g-1 and mean manganese concentrations were in a similar range of 34 to 78 μg·g-1. The mean iron concentrations were significantly high with a range of 161 μg·g-1 to 287 μg·g-1. A similar trend was observed in the beans where the mean copper concentrations varied from 11 to 33 μg·g-1, mean zinc concentrations ranged from a low value of 24 μg·g-1 to a high value of 35 μg·g-1, mean manganese concentrations varied from 33 μg·g-1 to 98 μg·g-1 and the mean iron concentrations ranged from 227 μg·g-1 to 647 μg·g-1. The cooked Muthokoi samples from Machakos district had relatively high mean trace element concentrations: manganese—109 μg·g-1; iron—280 μg·g-1; copper—19 μg·g-1; and zinc—41 μg·g-1. The only exception was mean iron concentrations which were extremely high in samples from Mwingi District where the concentrations varied from 73 μg·g-1 to 1597 μg·g-1. In finger millet flour, the mean manganese concentrations varied from 95 to 290 μg·g-1, whereas the mean iron concentrations ranged from 127 μg·g-1 to 259 μg·g-1. In contrast, the mean copper and zinc concentrations were low in comparison to the manganese and iron concentrations. As a whole, the mean copper concentrations in the diets are significantly low compared to the other three trace elements. However, the total content is not necessarily a reflection of the amount assimilated in the body. Finger millet was found to be an excellent source of manganese and iron whereas beans were observed to be good sources of iron. All the food crops were observed to poor sources of copper.

Effects of cooperative learning approach on biology mean achievement scores of secondary school students in Machakos District, Kenya

Performance in Biology at secondary school level in Kenya remains poor and one reason is the teaching approach adopted by teachers with teacher-centered approaches being pre-dominant. This study sought to determine the effect of cooperative learning approach on mean achievement scores in Biology of secondary school students. Solomon-four-non-equivalent-control-group design was used and the target population comprised 183 form two students in four secondary schools. Students were taught one Biology topic for five weeks and cooperative learning approach was used in experimental groups while the regular teaching method was used in control groups. Pre-test was administered before treatment and a post-test after treatment. A Biology Achievement Test was used to measure students’ achievement and it attained a reliability coefficient of 0.84 (N=59) at pilot testing. Data was analyzed using t-tests, ANOVA and ANCOVA and hypotheses were accepted or rejected at significant level of P≤0.05. Cooperative learning approach resulted in significantly higher mean achievement scores compared to regular teaching method and gender had no significant influence on achievement. It was concluded that cooperative learning approach is an effective teaching approach which Biology teachers should be encouraged to use. Key words: Cooperative learning approach, student achievement, Biology, effects.

INVESTIGATION OF TEACHING THE INTEGRATED TOPICS ON DRUG ABUSE IN SECONDARY SCHOOL CURRICULUM

The problem of this study was to investigate the teaching of the integrated topics on drug abuse in the secondary school curriculum as a strategy to wipe out the problem of drug abuse among students in Machakos District, Kenya. The specific objectives of the study were to: establish the prevalence of drug abuse at the secondary school level according to gender, locality (urban/rural), boarding or day and religious practice, and establish the effect of teaching integrated topics on prevalence rate of drug abuse. It was also meant to examine which topics on drug abuse are integrated in the secondary school curriculum. A survey study was carried out in Machakos District, Kenya. The subjects of the study were drawn from 24 randomly selected secondary schools. A sample of 774 respondents selected through stratified and simple random sampling techniques were used for the study. The sampling matrix comprised of 24 principals, 280 teachers and 470 students. The study utilized five research instruments: three questionnaires, interview schedule and observation schedule. The data collected was analyzed using frequencies, percentages, mean, mode and median. The main findings of the study were: the prevalence of drug abuse according to gender was Boys’ (11.19%), Girls’ (9.58%) and mixed sex (9.49%) schools. The urban schools had a prevalence of 10.73% whereas it was 9.66% in the rural ones. The prevalence according to status of the schools was: Day (13.84%), Mixed Day and Boarding (12.28%), and Boarding (11.54%). The teaching of the integrated topics on drug abuse had helped schools to reduce the drug menace. The topics on drug abuse were integrated in five subjects in the formal curriculum (English, Kiswahili, Chemistry, Biology and Christian Religious Education), the integrated topics were also taught through the non formal (Clubs and societies meetings) and in the informal (class, assembly and dormitory meetings) curriculum. Key words: curriculum, integrated topics, prevalence rate of drug abuse.

Practices of Traditional Birth Attendants in Machakos District, Kenya

The aim of the study was to document TBAs practices as well as the indigenous herbal remedies they use to manage pre, intra and post partum complications in a rural Kenyan community. A cross sectional study was conducted on practicing TBAs and their clients living in the study area. Data was collected using structured questionnaires and interviews. Focused group discussions were held with the TBAs to supplement the interviews and questionnaire survey. Two hundred TBAs and 20 clients were interviewed. The majority of the TBAs were females 75% of them having attended to over 200 pregnant women over a period of 5 years and above compared to only 6% of the males. A total of 10 pregnancy related complications and symptoms including threatened abortion, labor complications, post partum hemorrhage and retained after birth were recorded. Fifty five plant species most of them belonging to Euphorbiaceae family were identified for the management of the complications. Traditional Birth Attendants still have a role to play in assisting pregnant women in rural communities. Their knowledge on herbal medicines is equally important and should be preserved for posterity.

CLIMATE VARIABILITY AND CHANGE: FARMER PERCEPTIONS AND UNDERSTANDING OF INTRA-SEASONAL VARIABILITY IN RAINFALL AND ASSOCIATED RISK IN SEMI-ARID KENYA

SUMMARYThis study examines farmers’ perceptions of short- and long-term variability in climate, their ability to discern trends in climate and how the perceived trends converge with actual weather observations in five districts of Eastern Province in Kenya where the climate is semi-arid with high intra- and inter-annual variability in rainfall. Field surveys to elicit farmers’ perceptions about climate variability and change were conducted in Machakos, Makueni, Kitui, Mwingi and Mutomo districts. Long-term rainfall records from five meteorological stations within a 10 km radius from the survey locations were obtained from the Kenya Meteorological Department and were analysed to compare with farmers’ observations. Farmers’ responses indicate that they are well aware of the general climate in their location, its variability, the probabilistic nature of the variability and the impacts of this variability on crop production. However, their ability to synthesize the knowledge they have gained from their observations and discern long-term trends in the probabilistic distribution of seasonal conditions is more subjective, mainly due to the compounding interactions between climate and other factors such as soil fertility, soil water and land use change that determine the climate's overall influence on crop productivity. There is a general tendency among the farmers to give greater weight to negative impacts leading to higher risk perception. In relation to long-term changes in the climate, farmer observations in our study that rainfall patterns are changing corroborated well with reported perceptions from other places across the African continent but were not supported by the observed trends in rainfall data from the five study locations. The main implication of our findings is the need to be aware of and account for the risk during the development and promotion of technologies involving significant investments by smallholder farmers and exercise caution in interpreting farmers’ perceptions about long-term climate variability and change.

Small tropical reservoirs and fish cage culture: a pilot study conducted in Machakos district, Kenya

The findings of this study provide useful insights into the key aspects of fish cage farming to be considered during setting and overall management of multi-purpose water resources so as to maximise their aquacultural potential. The study was conducted in Machakos District, Kenya, to characterise limnochemistry and algal composition of three small man-made reservoirs Ngeki, Ngei and Kavovi, used for cage culture of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). In Ngeki, the open water was compared with areas in between the cages and significant differences in dissolved oxygen were found. For N, P and chlorophyll-a, no differences were noticed. In all the reservoirs, temporal variations were noticed for all parameters except NO3N and NH4N. Peak concentrations of nutrients occurred during the rainy season with lower values in the dry season (below detectable limits for SRP). All reservoirs were classified as hyper-eutrophic with a strong positive correlation between chlorophyll-a and TP. Algal abundances changed with season. Chlorophyta dominated at the start of the rainy season, while cyanobacteria prevailed at the onset of thermal stratification. Diatoms prevailed in the dry season but were notably absent in the rainy season. It was concluded that all the reservoirs are suitable for cage culture of Nile tilapia, but this should be undertaken with caution considering critical periods when anoxic conditions may occur.

Diagnosic utility of fine-needle aspiration cytology in the managment of liver disease in a district hospital

Fine needle aspiration (FNA) cytology is a cost effective technique of obtaining cellular specimens for diagnoses. It has many advantages over large needle core biopsies that makes it quite suitable for outpatient department and institutions without facilities for histopathology diagnosis. Any site of the body can be sampled with FNA technique. To assess the diagnostic utility of fine needle aspiration cytology technique in management of patients with liver disease in resource limited settings. Prospective cross sectional study. Patient evaluation and FNA aspiration were done in Murang'a and Machakos district hospitals and specimen staining and microscopy were done in Centre for Clinical Research, Kenya Medical Research Institute. Patients who were suspected to have liver disease were referred to the medical outpatient clinics in Murang'a and Machakos district hospitals for evaluation. In addition those on the medical wards in the two hospitals who were suspected to have liver disease were also evaluated. The patients with liver disease were identified after physical and abdominal ultrasound examination. Those with hepatomegaly were selected for the study. Liver fine needle aspiration was done using 21 gauge fine needle attached to a 10 ml syringe. Focal lesions were targeted as much as possible. Thin smears of specimens obtained were spread onto microscope slides which were then dropped into 95% ethanol and left for 30 min in order to fix the material. The slides were then removed, dried and transported to KEMRI where they were stained with Papanicolaou stain then evaluated on the light microscope. One hundred and twenty patients with suspected liver disease were evaluated in the two hospitals; 70 in Machakos and 50 in Murang'a. Fifty patients were identified to have liver disease and fine needle aspiration done aseptically. Twenty one (42%) of the 50 patients had malignant cells; 15(30%) of the 50 patients had necrotic material aspirates 2 (4%) shoved fatty changes later showed to be liver cirrhosis; 11 (22%) showed normal hepatocytes. The results support the diagnostic utility of FNA cytology in the management of liver disease, especially in rural setting.

A study of the relationship between academic achievement motivation and home environment among standard eight pupils

The objective of this study was to investigate the relationship between academic achievement motivation and home environment among standard eight pupils. The study was carried out on 235 standard eight Kenyan pupils from six urban and rural primary schools randomly selected from Machakos district. Their age ranged between 13 and 17 years. Two questionnaires, the simple profile (SP) and home environment questionnaire, were used to provide information on the pupil’s levels of academic motivation and home environment. A significant (p < 0.05) positive relationship was found between six of the home environmental factors, that is fathers’ occupation (r = 0.22), mothers’ occupation (r = 0.26), fathers’ education (r = 0.15), mothers’ education (r = 0.14), family size (r = 0.26) and learning facilities at home (r = 0.23) and academic achievement motivation. Parental encouragement was the only factor that was not significantly (r = 0.03) related to academic achievement motivation. Although these correlations are low, they showed that pupils’ motivation to do well in academic work is to some extend dependent on the nature of their home environment. It was recommended that parents need to be aware of the importance of their role in their children’s academic achievement motivation so that they can provide the necessary facilities at home. Key words: relationship, achievement motivation, home environment, pupils, questionnaire