Moor Macaques Research Articles

The potential conservation value of anthropogenically modified habitat for the Endangered moor macaque Macaca maura in Sulawesi, Indonesia

AbstractHuman-induced land-use change has resulted in substantial loss and degradation of habitat for forest-dwelling wildlife. The moor macaque Macaca maura, an Endangered primate endemic to Sulawesi, Indonesia, has been observed in a wide array of habitats, including heavily modified areas, but little is known about the quality of these habitats. Here we compared the habitat quality of two areas occupied by moor macaque populations: a previously human-modified karst forest now located within a national park and a heavily modified forest located in an unprotected area. We assessed habitat quality by measuring specific indicators of potential food availability derived from vegetation data and quantified the nutritional environment based on macronutrient analysis of fruit samples collected at the two sites. Although the species richness, diversity and overall stem density of macaque food trees were greater in the protected area forest, total basal area and mean diameter at breast height were greater in the heavily modified forest. Mean metabolizable energy concentrations of fruits eaten by macaques were similar between forests, as were the proportions of protein, lipids and total non-structural carbohydrates. These results provide further support for the notion that heavily modified habitats should not be overlooked for their potential conservation value. To further augment their value, conservation efforts should focus on forest restoration, specifically the planting of fast-growing species that are utilized by both wildlife and people.

Maternal and offspring behavior in free‐ranging Japanese and moor macaques: A comparative approach

Female primates represent the most important social partner for their developing offspring. However, mothers may strongly differ in the way they relate to their offspring (e.g., in terms of two different dimensions: protectiveness and rejection). In this study, we aimed to assess how dominance style predicts (i) changes in maternal behavior through offspring development, and (ii) the link between maternal behavior and offspring behavior. We conducted behavioral observations on 34 free-ranging immatures of two species of macaques with different dominance styles: less tolerant Japanese macaques (JM;Macaca fuscata) and more tolerant moor macaques (MM;Macaca maura). Our results showed that maternal behavior differed between JM and MM: maternal proximity and grooming decreased through offspring development more quickly in MM than in JM, whereas maternal rejection and aggression, which were generally more frequent in JM, decreased with offspring age similarly in both species. In contrast, maternal restraint of offspring decreased similarly with offspring age in both species. Furthermore, dominance style was differentially associated with the link between maternal and offspring behavior: in MM only, maternal grooming predicted an increase of the probability that offspring interacted with partners other than their mothers and engaged in solitary play, whereas maternal rejection predicted a decrease in the occurrence of solitary play. Overall, these results suggest interspecific variation in maternal behavior during offspring's first years of life, and point to the possibility that these differences may have an important role in shaping their behavioral development.

Detection of viruses from feces of wild endangered Macaca maura: a potential threat to moor macaque survival and for zoonotic infection

BackgroundTo date, there is a scarcity of information and literature on Macaca maura health status relative to viral diseases. The objectives of the present study were to investigate on the potential spread of enteric and non-enteric viruses shed in the environment through a wild macaque feces and to understand the possible interrelation in the spread of zoonotic viruses in a poorly studied geographical area, the Sulawesi Island. This study will also contribute providing useful information on potential threats to the health of this endangered species.MethodsThe sampling was conducted between 2014 and 2016 in the Bantimurung Bulusaraung National Park, in the south of the Sulawesi Island and non-invasive sampling methods were used to collect fresh stools of the M. maura, one of the seven macaque species endemic to the island of Sulawesi, Indonesia. The population under study consisted in two wild, neighboring social macaque groups with partially overlapping home ranges; twenty-four samples were collected and examined using negative staining electron microscopy and a panel of PCR protocols for the detection of ten RNA and two DNA viruses.ResultsViral particles resembling parvovirus (5 samples), picornavirus (13 samples) and calicivirus (13 samples) were detected by electron microscopy whereas the PCR panel was negative for the 12 viruses investigated, except for one sample positive for a mosquito flavivirus. The results did not correlate with animal sex; furthermore, because all of the animals were clinically healthy, it was not possible to correlate feces consistency with viral presence.ConclusionsAs information on viral infections in wild moor macaques remains limited, further studies are yet required to identify the fecal–oral and blood transmitted potentially zoonotic viruses, which may infect the moor macaque and other macaque species endemic to the South Sulawesi Island.

Effect of Anthropogenic Activities on the Population of Moor Macaques (Macaca maura) in South Sulawesi, Indonesia

Forest loss due to anthropogenic activities is one of the main causes of plant and animal species decline. Studying the species’ population status (i.e., density, abundance, and geographic distribution) on a regular basis is one of the main tools to assess the effect of anthropogenic activities on wildlife, to monitor population dynamics and to intervene with effective conservation strategies when the population of an endangered species declines. On Sulawesi Island, Indonesia, anthropogenic activities, such as agriculture, are decreasing the remaining natural habitats available for several endemic and endangered species. The effect of this forest loss on the threatened moor macaques (Macaca maura) in South Sulawesi is unknown, and data on the population status of this species are needed to design effective conservation strategies. To assess the population status of the moor macaques, we walked linear transects (N = 29, survey effort = 114 km) at six sites between November 2019 and March 2020 to estimate macaque population density and encounter rate. We tested the effect of anthropogenic activities on macaque encounter rate. Our global density estimate (24 individuals/km2) was lower than the overall estimate from the most detailed survey conducted on this species, which covered its whole geographic distribution (36.1 individuals/km2). However, these results should be interpreted with caution because the previous density estimate falls within the confidence intervals of our estimate. Furthermore, we found regional declines in moor macaque encounter rates in at least two sites compared with previous studies. We found a high presence of anthropogenic activity in the forests inhabited by macaques. Moor macaques were less abundant in open areas with no forest (i.e., clear cuttings) than in forested areas, and in the presence of nonspecies-specific hunting traps (i.e., wire-loop traps). Moreover, moor macaques were more abundant in areas with a higher presence of humans and domestic animals. Overall, our data suggest that the population of this species may be declining in certain regions but further surveys are needed to corroborate whether this is occurring across the entire geographic distribution.

The Habituation Process in Two Groups of Wild Moor Macaques (Macaca maura)

When studying animal behavior in the wild, some behaviors may require observation from a relatively short distance. In these cases, habituation is commonly used to ensure that animals do not perceive researchers as a direct threat and do not alter their behavior in their presence. However, habituation can have significant effects on the welfare and conservation of the animals. Studying how nonhuman primates react to the process of habituation can help to identify the factors that affect habituation and implement habituation protocols that allow other researchers to speed up the process while maintaining high standards of health and safety for both animals and researchers. In this study, we systematically described the habituation of two groups of wild moor macaques (Macaca maura), an Endangered endemic species of Sulawesi Island (Indonesia), to assess the factors that facilitate habituation and reduce impact on animal behavior during this process. During 7 months, we conducted behavioral observations for more than 7,872 encounters and an average of 120 days to monitor how macaque behavior toward researchers changed through time in the two groups under different conditions. We found that both study groups (N = 56, N = 41) became more tolerant to the presence of researchers during the course of the habituation, with occurrence of neutral group responses increasing, and minimum distance to researchers and occurrence of fearful group responses decreasing through time. These changes in behavior were predominant when macaques were in trees, with better visibility conditions, when researchers maintained a longer minimum distance to macaques and, unexpectedly, by the presence of more than one researcher. By identifying these factors, we contribute to designing habituation protocols that decrease the likelihood of fearful responses and might reduce the stress experienced during this process.

Initial Investigation of Sulawesi Moor Macaque (Macaca maura) in Tabo-tabo Forest, South Sulawesi - Indonesia

Sulawesi black crested macaque (Macaca maura) is one of the seven endemic macaque inhabited Sulawesi Island and is mainly found in the Southern part of Sulawesi. This species is classified as an endangered species by the International Union for Conservation and Nature (IUCN). The aim of this research was 1) to examine the homerange of M. maura and daily activity of the species, 2) to determine tree species used by the species as diet sources and resting trees in Tabo-tabo Forest, Pangkep Regency (South Sulawesi – Indonesia). The home range was measured by connecting coordinate points passed by a moor macaque group in the area for 6 consecutive days. Meanwhile, daily activity of the species was monitored by using scan sampling method for sampled individuals in three observation periods. Direct observation was carried out to identify diet and resting tree species. It was found that the moor macaque group had 22.06 ha width of home range with the total distance around 6.64 km. The daily distance spent by the group was between 0.9-1.5 km or in average was 1.1 km. The highest activities known to be feeding (30.4%) and then followed by moving (25.3%). While resting activities was allocated for 24.7%. The least activities recorded were social activities (19.6%). Tree species used by the group as diet and resting trees were Anthocephalus chinensis and Dracontomelon dao. The tree species known to be a diet tree only were Garcinia nervosa, Arenga pinnata, Flacourtia rukam, Ficus. sp, Eugenia cuminii, Gastonia serratifolia, Mangifera sp., Spondias dulcis, and Muntingia calabura.

Behavior of Sulawesi Black Monkey (Macaca maura): a case study of attacking behavior in agricultural plants

Sulawesi Black Monkey (Macaca maura) is an endemic species of South Sulawesi that is almost extinct. One of the habitats is in the Tabo-Tabo education and training forest area, Pangkep Regency. The existence of monkeys is a problem because there are human activities in and around the area and they are considered as pests of agricultural crops. To shelter and prevent the Sulawesi Black Monkey (Macaca maura) from its extinction, we need to know where to live and evidence about its attacking behavior on agricultural crops. The study was conducted using a survey and observation method in the field which was modified by providing feed in the form of corn, peanut and cassava which were ready for harvest, which was found in a land measuring 10 x 30 m. The results of the Macaca maura attack behavioral research revealed: peeping behavior, initial attack behavior, eating behavior and safety behavior. The attack on the agricultural location by Macaca Maura because the community’s agricultural land is located in the Macaca maura home range.

Os Metacarpale Sinistra Amputation on Moor Macaque (Macaca maura) in South Sulawesi, Indonesia

A case of comminuted fracture palm of the left hand on one female moor macaque (Macaca maura) that was attacked by a Sun Bear (Helarctos malayanus) at Distrik Somba Opu Gowa and its successful surgical removal had been recorded. The female moor macaque was 2 years-old and weighing 10.5kg. Upon physical examination, the macaque was bleeding on the left hand and fractured at os metacarpale sinistra. The aim of the amputation was to save the life of the valuable animal that is protected by the law in Indonesia especially Ministry of Environment and Forestry regarding endangered species of plants and animals in addition to detracting morbidity (necrosis and gangrene) after the treatment. General anesthesia was administered to the female moor macaque and the amputation of the os metacarpale sinistra was performed. The moor macaque was completely recovered within two months after surgery. This is the first report describing the performance of comminuted fractures amputation in moor macaque which can be used further as a reference on proper urgent treatment of similar case to avoid worse condition that can be occure in the absence of immediate treatment.

Roadside monkeys: anthropogenic effects on moor macaque (Macaca maura) ranging behavior in Bantimurung Bulusaraung National Park, Sulawesi, Indonesia.

A growing body of research focuses on how anthropogenic factors affect the behavior and ecology of primates and their ecosystems. Infrastructural development, such as roads, is an increasingly pervasive anthropogenic impact that destroys primate habitat, affects the distribution and dispersal of primates, and facilitates human-primate interactions. At our field site in Bantimurung-Bulusaraung National Park, Sulawesi, Indonesia, a major road bisects the habitat of the endangered moor macaque (Macaca maura). Beginning in 2015, we observed a behavioral shift by our main study group: they began spending more time along the road foraging in trash pits and waiting for provisions from vehicles. Our objective in this study was to examine how access to anthropogenic foods has affected the group's ranging behavior by comparing ranging data collected before (2010-2011) and after the shift (2016-2017). In contrast to what we expected, home ranges were significantly larger and daily travel distance was significantly longer after the shift compared to before. As predicted, mean distance to the road decreased after the shift. These results likely reflect the irregular and spatially dispersed nature of provisioning at this site. The macaques appear to be attracted to the road because it presents opportunities to obtain palatable and energy-dense foods. Our results indicate that moor macaques are able to flexibly adjust their ranging behavior in response to anthropogenic impacts. However, given the risks of being in proximity to roads and humans, management of this emerging human-macaque interface is needed.

Activity budget, home range, and habitat use of moor macaques (Macaca maura) in the karst forest of South Sulawesi, Indonesia.

Primate behavior can be responsive to the different ecological pressures associated with different habitats, as well as to the effects of direct and indirect anthropogenic disturbance. The karst forest ecosystem of South Sulawesi (Indonesia) represents one of the few intact forests available for residual populations of the moor macaque, but our understanding of its habitat use is limited. In the present study, this gap in knowledge was addressed by observing the activity and habitat use of two groups of moor macaques and by assessing the suitability of different habitats in the karst forest. Through a fine-scale vegetation analysis of 1ha of forest in Bantimurung Bulusaraung National Park, we identified the presence of two distinct habitats that differ in terms of forest structure and composition. The karst plain forest (KPF) provided a greater abundance and diversity of food resources than the karst tower forest (KTF). In addition, anthropogenic disturbance was high in the KPF but low in the KTF. Behavioral data collected via group scans indicate that the macaques devoted more time to feeding activities when in the KPF, suggesting an ability to adjust their feeding behavior to meet their nutritional needs. However, the larger of the two groups used the food-rich KPF more than expected, implying that the KTF may represent a valuable refuge for the smaller group, as it is a less risky portion of its home range. The results of this study therefore provide novel information on the ecology of moor macaques and their habitats that can inform conservation planning for remnant populations.

PERILAKU INTERAKSI SOSIAL MONYET HITAM DARE (MacacamauraSchinz, 1825) DI TAMAN WISATA ALAM LEJJA KABUPATEN SOPPENG

Sulawesi island is a unique island among other islands in indonesia. This research aims to find out the social interaction behaviour of Dare Black Monkey (Macaca maura) in the Lejja natural tourism park. This animal is an endemic in Sulawesi island, located in South Sulawesi Province and categorixed as an endangered species by the IUCN, therefore its existence must be protected. The method was used field observation and focal animal sampling. The object was detremined in 15 Macaca maura based on age and sexuality in a group.Social interaction behaviour was recorded, namely the behavior of playing, grooming, coitus, conflict. Based on the results that the high social behaviour frequency of playing activity was owned by the young male (72 times) and the children (56 times), as well as grooming by young male and children have the highest frequency (31 times). Frequency of coitus and agonistic behaviours was owned by adult male with 14 times and 5 times respectively.However, the longest time proportion of playing was used by children with 10.602 second (62,01%),while the total and time percentage of coitus have the lowest value (240 second or 2,11% and 300 second or 2,58% perspectively) by adult ages.Kata Kunci :, Macaca maura, social behavior, grooming, Lejja natural tourism park

Interactions with humans are jointly influenced by life history stage and social network factors and reduce group cohesion in moor macaques (Macaca maura)

Human-wildlife encounters are becoming increasingly frequent across the globe, often leading people to interact with and feed wild animals and impacting animal behaviour and ecology. Although the nature of human-wildlife interactions has been well documented across a number of species, we still have limited understanding as to why some individual animals interact more frequently with humans than others. Additionally, we lack a comprehensive understanding of how these interactions influence animal social networks. Using behavioural data from a group of moor macaque monkeys (Macaca maura), we used permutation-based linear regression analyses to understand how life history and social network factors jointly explain interindividual variation in tendency to interact with humans along a provincial road in South Sulawesi, Indonesia. As our study group spent only a portion of their time in proximity to humans, we also examined how social network structure changes in response to human presence by comparing social networks in the forest to those along the road. We found that sex, individual network position, and associate network position interact in complex ways to influence individual behaviour. Individual variation in tendency to be along the road caused social networks to become less cohesive when in proximity to humans. This study demonstrates that nuanced intragroup analyses are necessary to fully understand and address conservation issues relating to human-wildlife interactions.

Preliminary Assessment of Gastrointestinal Parasites in Two Wild Groups of Endangered Moor Macaques (Macaca maura) from Sulawesi

Information on parasite biodiversity and abundance can improve our understanding of parasitic infections on endangered wildlife, as parasites can affect host survival and reproduction and may play a crucial role in determining population dynamics. We conducted a noninvasive assessment of gastrointestinal parasites in wild Macaca maura, an Endangered primate endemic to the Indonesian island of Sulawesi and examined the influence of season and sex on parasite richness and prevalence. We collected fecal samples (N = 72) from 18 individuals from two groups. We collected data from September 2014 to February 2015 and from June to November 2016, sampling each individual at least twice. We detected two taxa of nematodes (Trichuris sp. and Strongylida fam. gen.) and eight of protozoa (Giardia duodenalis, Chilomastix mesnili, Entamoeba hartmanni, Entamoeba polecki-like, Entamoeba coli, Iodamoeba butschlii, Balantoides coli, and Blastocystis sp.). The gastrointestinal parasite richness (2.5 ± 0.4 SD) was below the mean reported for nonthreatened primates, whereas the mean prevalence of infection across all parasites (56.3%) was above the mean. We did not find any statistically significant difference in parasite richness or prevalence between seasons or the sexes. This preliminary assessment addresses the paucity of studies on parasites of wild primates in Southeast Asia and can contribute to our understanding of the newly emerging human–macaque interface at this site.

Beyond Neutrality: the Human–Primate Interface During the Habituation Process

Ethnoprimatology explores the ecological, social, and cultural interconnections between humans and other primates. Since the field’s emergence, researchers have examined overlapping human–primate resource use and conflict, human–primate disease transmission, primate folklore and its influence on conservation status, and primate tourism. One facet of the human–primate interface that remains underexplored from an ethnoprimatological perspective is habituation. Habituation—defined as when wild animals accept a human observer as a neutral element of their environment—has long been considered a critical first step for successful primate fieldwork. Although primatologists have explored how to accomplish habituation, little attention has been paid to habituation as a mutually modifying process that occurs between human observers and their primate study subjects. By drawing on the ethnoprimatological approach and engaging with perspectives from human–animal studies, this manuscript examines habituation as a scientific and intersubjective process. Over seven months, we documented behavioral changes in moor macaques (Macaca maura) and human participants that occur during habituation. We also conducted interviews with researchers and local field assistants to track perceptions of habituation progress. Integrating ethological measures with ethnographic material enabled us to explore how and why quantitative markers of habituation “success” differ from subjective impressions, observe habituation—and primate fieldwork in general—as a bidirectional, intersubjective experience, and come to understand habituation as a dynamic spectrum of tolerance rather than a state to be “achieved.” Collectively, these findings have important implications for future work in ethnoprimatology and habituation methodology, as well as the practice of primate fieldwork.

Comparing the Use of Camera Traps and Farmer Reports to Study Crop Feeding Behavior of Moor Macaques (Macaca maura)

Investigating crop feeding patterns by primates is an increasingly important objective for primatologists and conservation practitioners alike. Although camera trap technology is used to study primates and other wildlife in numerous ways, i.e., activity patterns, social structure, species richness, abundance, density, diet, and demography, it is comparatively underused in the study of human–primate interactions. We compare photographic (N = 210) and video (N = 141) data of crop feeding moor macaques (Macaca maura) from remote sensor cameras, functioning for 231 trap days, with ethnographic data generated from semistructured interviews with local farmers. Our results indicate that camera traps can provide data on the following aspects of crop feeding behavior: species, crop type and phase targeted, harvesting technique used, and daily and seasonal patterns of crop feeding activity. We found camera traps less useful, however, in providing information on the individual identification and age/sex class of crop feeders, exact group size, and amount of crops consumed by the moor macaques. While farmer reports match camera trap data regarding crop feeding species and how wildlife access the gardens, they differ when addressing crop feeding event frequency and timing. Understanding the mismatches between camera trap data and farmer reports is valuable to conservation efforts that aim to mitigate the conflict between crop feeding wildlife and human livelihoods. For example, such information can influence changes in the way certain methods are used to deter crop feeding animals from damaging crops. Ultimately, we recommend using remote-sensing camera technology in conjunction with other methods to study crop feeding behavior.

Socially tolerant relationships among wild male moor macaques (Macaca maura)

Researchers are increasingly documenting the existence of social tolerance and affiliative behavior among primate males, including in male-dispersing species. We investigated the nature of male social relationships in a relatively understudied macaque species, the moor macaque (Macaca maura), in order to expand our knowledge of male social relationships in male dispersing primates. The classification of social styles for primates rests largely on data about female social relationships. Therefore, by providing data on male–male relationships, we also contribute to our understanding of social style variation within the genus Macaca. Observations were conducted on a wild yet well-habituated group in Bantimurung-Bulusaraung National Park in South Sulawesi, Indonesia. We collected focal animal and ad libitum data on four adult males, recording social behavior during 209 contact hours over two field seasons in 2010 and 2011. The adult male moor macaques in this study did not interact frequently. Interactions that did occur more frequently involved affiliation rather than aggression, with greetings being the most common form of interaction. Greetings occurred in a predominately neutral context and were more common between specific males with uncertain or ambiguous dominance relationships and low-quality relationships, but the initiation of greetings was not linked to dominance rank. These results suggest that greetings enable males to communicate information about their willingness to invest in the relationship, representing one way for adult males to ease social tension and build social bonds. To expand our understanding of social style variation in Macaca, we compared our data to those published for other macaque taxa. In the present study, the observed pattern of aggression (i.e., low rate, low to moderate intensity and high symmetry) was consistent with the species’ social style classification as highly tolerant. The relatively low grooming rate and low percentage of counteraggression, however, were more consistent with the social style of less tolerant taxa. Further research is needed to determine what factors explain this pattern of social tolerance among male moor macaques.

Neuropeptide Y‐immunoreactive Neurons in the Cerebral Cortex of Humans and Other Haplorrhine Primates

We examined the distribution of neurons immunoreactive for neuropeptide Y (NPY) in the posterior part of the superior temporal cortex (Brodmann's area 22 or area Tpt) of humans and nonhuman haplorrhine primates. NPY has been implicated in learning and memory and the density of NPY-expressing cortical neurons and axons is reduced in depression, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, and Alzheimer's disease. Due to the role that NPY plays in both cognition and neurodegenerative diseases, we tested the hypothesis that the density of cortical and interstitial neurons expressing NPY was increased in humans relative to other primate species. The study sample included great apes (chimpanzee and gorilla), Old World monkeys (pigtailed macaque, moor macaque, and baboon) and New World monkeys (squirrel monkey and capuchin). Stereologic methods were used to estimate the density of NPY-immunoreactive (-ir) neurons in layers I-VI of area Tpt and the subjacent white matter. Adjacent Nissl-stained sections were used to calculate local densities of all neurons. The ratio of NPY-ir neurons to total neurons within area Tpt and the total density of NPY-ir neurons within the white matter were compared among species. Overall, NPY-ir neurons represented only an average of 0.006% of the total neuron population. While there were significant differences among species, phylogenetic trends in NPY-ir neuron distributions were not observed and humans did not differ from other primates. However, variation among species warrants further investigation into the distribution of this neuromodulator system.

Handedness found in a wild group of moor monkeys in the Karaenta Nature Reserve, South Sulawesi, Indonesia

Abstract Hand preference of wild moor monkeys Macaca maurus was investigated in food reaching situations at the Karaenta Nature Reserve, South Sulawesi, Indonesia. The frequency picking up sweet-corn grains to take into the mouth by either hand of monkeys was counted directly at the feeding ground where sweet-corn grains were scattered for monkeys. Among the 20 monkeys examined, 8 were right-handed, 8 were left-handed, and 4 were ambilateral. The results indicated the prevailed hand preference on individual level but not either trends of left- or right-hand preference on population level. The trend toward a higher proportion of left-handed monkeys found in Japanese and rhesus monkeys was not found. Some other characteristics found in moor monkeys are discussed in comparison with those previous findings in Japanese and Tibetan macaques in order to evaluate variations within the genus Macaca.

Species-specific distributions of tyrosine hydroxylase–immunoreactive neurons in the prefrontal cortex of anthropoid primates

In this study, we assessed the distribution of cortical neurons immunoreactive for tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) in prefrontal cortical regions of humans and nonhuman primate species. Immunohistochemical methods were used to visualize TH-immunoreactive (TH-ir) neurons in areas 9 (dorsolateral prefrontal cortex) and 32 (anterior paracingulate cortex). The study sample included humans, great apes (chimpanzee, bonobo, gorilla, orangutan), one lesser ape (siamang), and Old World monkeys (golden guenon, patas monkey, olive baboon, moor macaque, black and white colobus, and François' langur). The percentage of neurons within the cortex expressing TH was quantified using computer-assisted stereology. TH-ir neurons were present in layers V and VI and the subjacent white matter in each of the Old World monkey species, the siamang, and in humans. TH-ir cells were also occasionally observed in layer III of human, siamang, baboon, colobus, and François' langur cortex. Cortical cells expressing TH were notably absent in each of the great ape species. Quantitative analyses did not reveal a phylogenetic trend for percentage of TH-ir neurons in these cortical areas among species. Interestingly, humans and monkey species exhibited a bilaminar pattern of TH-ir axon distributions within prefrontal regions, with layers I–II and layers V–VI having the densest contingent of axons. In contrast, the great apes had a different pattern of laminar innervation, with a remarkably denser distribution of TH-ir axons within layer III. It is possible that the catecholaminergic afferent input to layer III in chimpanzees and other great apes covaries with loss of TH-ir cells within the cortical mantle.

Phylogeny of primate T lymphotropic virus type 1 (PTLV-1) including various new Asian and African non-human primate strains

To further unravel intra- and interspecies PTLV-1 evolution in Asia and Africa, we phylogenetically analysed 15 new STLV-1 LTR and env sequences discovered in eight different Asian and African non-human primate species. We show that orang-utan STLV-1s form a tight, deeply branching monophyletic cluster between Asian STLV-1 macaque species clades, suggesting natural cross-species transmission. Novel viruses of Macaca maura, Macaca nigra and siamang cluster with other Sulawesian STLV-1s, demonstrating close relatedness among the STLV-1s in these insular species and suggesting cross-species transmission to a siamang in captivity. Viruses from Western chimpanzees and a Western lowland gorilla cluster within the HTLV-lb/STLV-1 clade, the latter close to a human strain, indicative of zoonosis. A new STLV-1 from Cercopithecus ascanius differs from the published STLV-Cas57, explainable by the existence of five geographically separated subspecies. Barbary macaques, not yet described to be STLV-infected, carry a relatively recent acquired, typical African STLV-1, giving us no clue on the phylogeographical origin of PTLV-1.