Maasai Women Research Articles

Education For Community Transformation

The Tanzanian Government has made several efforts to guarantee the accessible and equitable education to all children irrespective of their race, creed or sex. However, there are some predominant socio-cultural practices which are impediments to young women’s education. Using a case of Monduli district -Tanzania, this study explored the influence of socio-cultural practices toward schooling of Maasai Young Women. A cross- sectional research design was adopted to obtain a sample of 120 respondents. Data were collected using Questionnaires, Key Informants’ Interview (KII) and Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) methods and analysed by using IBM-SPSS. 20.0 and content analysis. Overall, the study found that, Nomadic Lifestyle, Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) and Early Marriages are tremendously affecting schooling of young Maasai women. While the two earlier mentioned practices were found to waste a lot of girls’ learning hours; the latter has been causing a substantial number of school girls to drop out. Subsequently the girls became vulnerable to illiteracy of which jeopardizes their chances to participate in community development projects as well as in decision-making process. The illiterate people are not always invited to participate because they do not understand the nitty gritty of their participation. In order to eliminate these harmful practices, it is recommended the government and other stakeholders to create or strengthening community awareness campaigns and capacity-building programs.

Power Relations and Maasai Women’s Access to Social Health Security in Kajiado West Sub-County, Kenya

Health is a human right and over the years, national governments have invested heavily to provide citizens with quality, accessible, and affordable health care. Although some aspects of women’s health have improved, there are still important unmet needs. The Maasai community has a patriarchal social structure, where men hold positions of power and authority. Women often have limited decision-making power and may face barriers to accessing healthcare independently. The study examined the effect of power relations on Maasai women’s access to social health security in Kajiado West Sub-County,Kenya. The study employed a mixed-method sequential explanatory design. The target population were Maasai women of Kajiado West Sub County. The sample size was 398, according to the Yamane formula. Questionnaires, interview guides and Focus Group Discussions were used in data collection. The study found a significant negative relationship between power differences and women’s social security for health in Kajiado West Sub-County. In the Maasai community men are in command of family leadership and women obey decisions made by their husbands without questioning. Accessibility to health services is challenging for women since they have to walk far to access health services. The majority of the women are aware of the Linda Mama package and the National Health Insurance Fund national scheme package. The study recommends that there is a need for the government and international and nongovernmental organisations to promote gender equality to address the patriarchy and power relation disparities. There is a need for sensitisation on the rights of women, especially about health.

Contribution of Land Tenure Changes in Empowering Maasai Women Pastoralists in Resources Management: A Case Study of Elangatwuas Ward, Kajiado County, Kenya

This research explores the contribution of land tenure changes in empowering Maasai women pastoralists in resource management. The study focuses on understanding the benefits and challenges of land subdivision for Maasai women, examining changes in decision-making processes at the household and community levels, exploring shifts in gender roles and resource access, and assessing the overall empowerment of Maasai women through land tenure changes. A mixed-methods approach was employed, combining qualitative data collection methods such as interviews and focus group discussions with quantitative surveys. The study findings reveal significant positive impacts of the land subdivision on Maasai women's empowerment. The benefits identified include reduced cases of husbands being polygamous, increased chances of women's involvement in business and employment, equal chances for male and female children to inherit and own family land, increased ability to undertake projects on the land, and the freedom for women to own their own livestock. These changes have provided women with increased decision-making power within households and communities, allowing them to participate in determining land use, livestock management, education for children, and building family houses. Despite the progress, challenges remain, including conflicts over land inheritance, limited knowledge of legal rights among illiterate girls, and smaller grazing areas for livestock. However, the research concludes that overall, land tenure changes have empowered Maasai women by enabling them to engage in business, acquire education, own livestock, and own land. The results highlight the importance of recognizing and strengthening women's rights in land and resource management to achieve gender equity and sustainable development in pastoralist communities. This research contributes to the understanding of the transformative potential of land tenure changes in empowering Maasai women pastoralists and informs strategies for promoting gender equity and sustainable resource management in similar contexts.

The ecosocial self, place, and well-being: An ethnographic case study with Maasai women from northern Tanzania

This article expands on “ecosocial” theories to consider the importance of the “ecosocial self” as a relevant theoretical construct for understanding and enhancing well-being among individuals whose sense of self is intimately intertwined with their ecological context or place, such as their land and livestock. This concept emerged from long-term ethnographic research with Maasai women in northern Tanzania. Fieldnotes, unstructured interviews with 71 women in a nonclinical community sample, and feedback from key informants inform this manuscript. Place-based stress on the land and livestock related to the local climate seems to be a driver of emotional distress for the female pastoralists in this study. Attending to the “ecosocial self,” or the part of a person who experiences themselves as intimately tied with their place (here, land and livestock) offers new solutions, especially in a social context where emotional distress is not interpreted as a sign of mental illness. The article concludes with recommendations about addressing mental health concerns related to place-based stress through interventions that seem to have nourished the “ecosocial self” in other contexts, such as land-based and animal-based interventions.

Livelihood diversification influence on socioeconomic wellbeing of Maasai women in Isinya, Kajiado County, Kenya

Livelihood diversification among the pastoral communities is currently a common occurrence due to changes in climate and human population. This study assessed the influence of business activities and wildlife tourism related activities on the socioeconomic wellbeing of Maasai women in Isinya, Kajiado County, Kenya. A stratified random sample of 279 women were selected from households in the study area and interviewed using semi-structured questionnaire in 2017. The data was analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics which involved simple linear regression model and Chi-square techniques. Four Focus Group Discussions were conducted for the household survey data while interview schedule was applied for key informants. The results showed that the wellbeing of the Maasai women were significantly (p<0.001) and positively affected by diversification into the business activities (β =0 451) and wildlife and tourism related activities (β =0 328). The study concludes that with the changing climate and reduction in land sizes owned by the pastoral communities, livelihood diversification towards business and wildlife activities would assist women to improve their standard of living. The study recommends diversification towards business and wildlife enterprises since they give individuals and households more capabilities to improve livelihood security and also to raise their living standards.

Maasai women hearing voices: Implications for global mental health.

There is a sparse literature on women who hear voices globally, even though there are documented gendered dimensions of distress in the context of globalization and climate change and research indicates that trauma and psychosocial stress may be related to an increased prevalence of voice-hearing or auditory verbal hallucinations (AVHs). There is also a gap in the cultural phenomenology of voice-hearing in general, as well as idioms of distress for non-western peoples. This article presents results of a mixed methods study that: 1) estimated community prevalence of voice-hearing among Maasai women in northern Tanzania; 2) examined any demographic correlates and two specific hypothesized correlates (i.e., psychological stress and potentially traumatic events); and 3) engaged women in semi-structured interviews about their everyday lives and the phenomenological experience of voice-hearing. The prevalence of voice-hearing (39.4%) in this nonclinical sample (n = 71) was quite high compared to other studies in sub-Saharan Africa. Most women also reported high psychosocial stress and traumatic life events. They also talked about gendered conditions of social adversity in a context of rapid social, economic, and climate change. Women who reported hearing voices had a statistically significantly higher level of psychological distress, met criteria for severe psychological distress, and reported more potentially traumatic life events. In a logistic regression model, psychosocial stress predicted voice-hearing. The presence of distressing voices may offer a straightforward way to quickly identify people in the community experiencing the most extreme levels of psychosocial stress and traumatic events-a potentially simple but effective screening tool for health workers on the ground.

What makes a woman? Understanding the reasons for and circumstances of female genital mutilation/cutting in Indonesia, Ethiopia and Kenya

This study presents the reasons for, and circumstances of, female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C) in Indonesia, Ethiopia and Kenya. Data were collected in 2016 and 2017 by means of a household survey conducted with young people (15–24 years) and through focus group discussions, in-depth interviews and key informant interviews with youth and community stakeholders. The study findings confirm previously documented reasons for FGM/C, noting that these reasons are interconnected, and are rooted in gender norms. These reasons drive the alterations of bodies to produce a ‘cultured’ body in the form of the ‘pure body’ among Sundanese and Sasak peoples in Indonesia, the ‘tame’ body among the Amhara people in Ethiopia and the ‘adult body’ among the Maasai people in Kenya. While health workers and parents are important decision-makers in each setting, young Maasai women are, at times, able to exercise their agency to decide whether to undergo FGM/C, owing to their older age at circumcision. Changing legal and social contexts in each setting have brought about changes in the practice of FGM/C such as increased medicalisation of the procedure in Indonesia. The clear links between the different drivers of FGM/C in each setting demonstrate the need for context-specific strategies and interventions to create long-lasting change.

Towards a participatory framework for improving water & health outcomes: A case study with Maasai women in rural Tanzania

Rural communities in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) are disproportionately burdened by a pervasive lack of access to safe drinking water. Widespread programmatic failure in the water, sanitation, and hygiene (WaSH) sector has resulted in particularly slow progress in alleviating these challenges in the region. Drawing from decolonial and participatory methodological scholarship, this research demonstrates how geographically and demographically specific, locally controlled, and long-term educational programming can improve health and wellness outcomes when associated with a technological intervention. Specifically, consultations between January 2015 and August 2018 were followed by an iterative and community-driven program development process between January and July 2019. Fifty Maasai women were subsequently recruited to participate and were provided with a point-of-use water treatment technology in August 2019. These women engaged in a series of three 14-week WaSH education programs over an 18-month evaluation period. Results showed that 38% of participants reported regular diarrhea at baseline, decreasing to 8%, 0%, and 3% immediately after each of the three WaSH education programs were provided at 3, 12, and 18 months. Interim measurements taken between WaSH programs showed 35% of participants (at 6 months) and 5% of participants (at 15 months) reporting regular diarrhea. A trend of improvement was thus observed over the study period, though the increase in reported diarrhea at 6 months demonstrates the need for long-term commitment on the part of WASH practitioners when engaging with end users to achieve sustained change. Further, this research highlights the importance of participatory program development and pedagogical approaches in WaSH interventions, where local control of study objective determination and implementation, combined with consistent and long-term engagement, can facilitate sustained technology use and associated reductions in diarrhea.

Book review of Takayanagi, T., 2020. Informal learning and literacy among Maasai women: Education, emancipation and empowerment

Book review of Takayanagi, T., 2020. Informal learning and literacy among Maasai women: Education, emancipation and empowerment

Female Migration and Control Over resources in Tanzania: a Case of Parakuyo Maasai Women in Coast region

This paper examined female migration and control over resources in Tanzania. The main objective was to investigate how migration has influenced access to and control over resources among Maasai women. The study was conducted in Dar es Salaam city and in Bagamoyo District in the Coast Region. Coast Region was selected because the respondents (Maasai women) who were found in the city mentioned it as their home areas (place of origin). The study selected purposively eighteen (18) wards in the city and four (4) wards in the rural areas. Respondents were obtained by interviewing all those who were found in business areas. Snowball technique was used by moving from one group to the next until the desired number of 400 respondents was attained. The findings showed that major economic activities in rural areas were livestock keeping alongside with crop cultivation and some petty businesses. In the City, the main economic activities were petty businesses where goods like traditional medicine, beaded jewellery, earrings, tobacco and beards were sold in combination. The determinants of migration for Maasai women were both pull and push factors like reduction of livestock due to diseases and drought, culminating to difficulties in earning income in the rural areas, the demand for Maasai goods and presence of friends and relatives in the city. The study concluded that migration of Maasai women to the city enabled them to access and control resources in their families. The study recommended that migrant Maasai women in the city be assisted to improve the quality of their goods so as to increase their incomes. Local Government Authority should ensure security in the informal sector particularly for women and protect their goods. In the rural areas, more efforts should be done by the government and NGOs to help Maasai practice dairy cattle so as to get more milk and money for their family up- keep. Also there should be interventions of entrepreneurship training in rural areas for rural females who are doing petty businesses by ensuring convenient places to conduct their businesses.

Significance of Informal Learning and Literacy in Health Promotion in Rural Kenya: Seeking Maasai Women's Voices.

Aiming to understand how Maasai women use informal learning and literacy to access to health information and improve well-being of their family at the village level, this qualitative study explores the significance of village based informal learning and literacy in maintain good health among village women and girls in the male-dominated community in rural Kenya. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews, informal conversations and observations. 15 Village women, 12 women's group leaders and 10 government officials were interviewed during an intensive six-month field study in Kenya. The information obtained from the interviews was analysed thematically and as narrative case studies. Results indicate that the village women initiate manageable health promotion activities to improve the well-being of their family and community via informal learning and literacy approaches. The study also concludes that the interviewed Maasai women developed their own effective communication mechanism to improve the situation of gender inequality in their community.

Lack of head sparing following third-trimester caloric restriction among Tanzanian Maasai.

The reduction of food intake during pregnancy is part of many cultural and religious traditions around the world. The impact of such practices on fetal growth and development are poorly understood. Here, we examined the patterns of diet intake among Maasai pregnant women and assessed their effect on newborn morphometrics. We recruited 141 mother-infant pairs from Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA) in Northern Tanzania and quantified dietary intake and changes in maternal diet during pregnancy. We obtained measurements of body weight (BW) and head circumference (HC) at birth. We found that Maasai women significantly reduced their dietary intake during the third trimester, going from an average of 1601 kcal/day during the first two trimesters to 799 kcal/day in the final trimester. The greatest proportion of nutrient reduction was in carbohydrates. Overall, 40% of HC Z-scores of the NCA sample were more than 2 standard deviations below the WHO standard. Nearly a third of neonates classify as low birth weight (< 2500g). HC was smaller relative to BW in this cohort than predicted using the WHO standard. This contrasts markedly to a Tanzanian birth cohort obtained at the same time in an urban context in which only 12% of infants exhibited low weight, only two individuals had HC Z-scores < 2 and HC's relative to birth weight were larger than predicted using the WHO standards. The surprising lack of head sparing in the NCA cohort suggests that the impact of third trimester malnutrition bears further investigation in both animal models and human populations, especially as low HC is negatively associated with long term health outcomes.

Knowledge and misconceptions surrounding family planning among Young Maasai women in Kenya

ABSTRACT Adolescent fertility rates are high in Kenya and increase the likelihood of maternal and infant morbidity and mortality. Our objective was to explore the knowledge, perceptions, and barriers surrounding the use of family planning services among young Maasai women in Laikipia County, Central Kenya. Individual interviews with 50 participants were conducted in Laikipia County, Kenya during June and July of 2019. Qualitative data was visualised using JMP software and coded using the framework method for content analysis. Several overarching themes were identified. First, we identified a high rate of unintended pregnancy and a low rate of family planning use. Second, we found that many young Maasai women believe that only women that are married and have finished childbearing should utilise family planning services. Finally, we document highly prevalent myths among young women in the Maasai community that the use of family planning will lead to negative health consequences, such as infertility and cancer. We conclude that the Maasai community of Laikipia County, Kenya needs comprehensive family planning education that will improve knowledge and dispel myths in order to empower young Maasai women to make informed decisions surrounding family planning.

Mobile phones and women's empowerment in Maasai communities: How men shape women's social relations and access to phones

Abstract Mobile phones have been heralded by many as promising new tools to empower women throughout the Global South. However, some have asserted that new information and communication technologies (ICTs) may serve to amplify disparities between more powerful and less powerful people. Few studies have examined which women stand to benefit and under what conditions. This study seeks to better understand the relationships between mobile phones and women’s empowerment by examining diverse women’s experiences within Maasai agro-pastoralist communities in northern Tanzania. Specifically, we ask three guiding questions: (1) How do Maasai women access and use phones? (2) What processes of empowerment do phones support or undermine? and (3) How are these processes embedded in diverse social relations? To address these questions, we use a framework that integrates a Social Relations Approach with a modified version of the Sustainable Livelihoods Approach. Our team conducted semi-structured and individual-stakeholder interviews with Maasai women in June-July, 2018 to learn their perspectives on phones, social-relations and multiple aspects of empowerment. We analyzed the content of these interviews using deductive and inductive qualitative strategies. These efforts yield multiple findings: (1) women’s access to phones is fluid; (2) multiple pathways to empowerment and disempowerment exist; (3) phones reinforce inequalities; (4) women’s identities are intersectional; and (5) women’s networks remain homogenous. Taken together, this approach and these insights provide a more conservative account of the benefits of mobile phones than many studies and also an important technology-empowerment narrative for development scholars and practitioners.

Development and Implementation of a Culturally Appropriate Education Program to Increase Cervical Cancer Screening among Maasai Women in Rural Tanzania.

Background:In Tanzania, the incidence of cervical cancer is nearly ten times that found in the US. Tanzanian women of the traditional Maasai tribe are financially and educationally marginalized and face a language barrier that reduces access to health care. While cervical cancer (CACX) screening programs are available locally, in our experience, Maasai women were less likely to use these services compared to local women of other tribal backgrounds.Objectives:A novel patient education program was designed to teach Maasai women about the natural history of cervical cancer and available screening and treatment. The program addressed the importance of preventative health and informed consent. Additionally, we sought to better understand the specific barriers Maasai women face in accessing and utilizing CACX screening services.Methods:The program used simple, scripted language translated into Maa language, the Maasai native language, with accompanying culturally appropriate 3D models. The effectiveness of the program was evaluated through pre and post-intervention surveys administered to Maasai and non-Maasai women as well as local healthcare providers, assessing knowledge of cervical cancer, screening, and treatment. Paired t-test analyses were used to analyze significance. Extensive question and answer sessions followed the education sessions from which additional barriers to screening were identified.Findings:Maasai women had minimal understanding of preventative health services prior to the intervention. While all groups showed an increase in knowledge following the education program, Maasai women demonstrated the greatest statistically significant improvement in knowledge. The proportion of Maasai women in attendance to CACX screening clinics increased by 18% after the intervention.Conclusions:Through a culturally sensitive and accessible patient education program, Maasai women gained knowledge of cervical cancer screening and treatment. This program serves as an adaptable model for other marginalized populations to increase patient understanding and informed consent, and to address issues that pertain to underutilization of health care services.

Maternal perceptions of breastfeeding and infant nutrition among a select group of Maasai women

BackgroundAdverse health outcomes are higher among Maasai children in the Ngorongoro Conservation Area compared to other co-located ethnic groups and regions of Tanzania. The Mama Kwanza Socioeconomic Health Initiative, a Canadian-Tanzanian partnership delivering healthcare at clinics in this region, gathered perceptions of mothers regarding breastfeeding and infant nutrition in order to inform culturally sensitive, realistic, and effective health promotion efforts.MethodsA qualitative description approach was used in interviewing 30 Maasai mothers of infants zero to six months of age to explore their infant feeding practices, beliefs, knowledge, and recommendations to support breastfeeding. A local research team was trained to conduct and transcribe the interviews and assist with data interpretation. Qualitative content analysis was used in analyzing the interview transcripts.ResultsLactation is universal in this culture with all the mothers planning to breastfeed for at least one year and most having initiated breastfeeding within one hour of birth. Lactation skills and knowledge are passed down intergenerationally from the elder women. None of the infants less than six months were exclusively breastfed, with a variety of liquid and semi-solid supplements given. Mothers perceived their milk alone was nutritionally insufficient with maternal dietary deficiencies cited as a factor.ConclusionsWhile there is a strong breastfeeding culture among the Maasai in Ngorongoro, intersectoral efforts are required to provide culturally respectful health education on the benefits of exclusive breastfeeding and to ensure the maternal dietary adequacy required to achieve this goal. The findings reinforce the importance of international health projects adapting health promotion initiatives to local realities and beliefs in efforts to improve maternal child health.

Как кооперироваться в масайском обществе, или не злите масайских женщин

Как кооперироваться в масайском обществе, или не злите масайских женщин

A Co-Wife for the Cow: Gender Dimensions of Land Change and Livelihood Shift among Loita Maasai of Southern Kenya

Gender dimensions are fundamental to human/environment systems. I use gender to investigate land change in a forested area of conservation concern in the pastoral rangelands of Kenya Maasailand. Mixed methods reveal a narrative arc from the mid-1970s culminating in a transformation of land, livelihood, and culture by 2014. Empirical findings expand current understandings of livelihood shift in Maasailand to include gender dimensions critical to livelihood success. Remotely sensed satellite data and qualitative evidence expose simplistic narratives about environmental conditions in Loita Forest and Maasai women’s social status. I argue that gender deserves more attention in land-change studies because of its linkages to resource utilization and drivers of forest decline around the world.

Knowledge and Attitude on Obstetric Effects of Female Genital Mutilation among Maasai Women in Maternity Ward at Loitokitok Sub-County Hospital, Kenya.

Background Female genital mutilation (FGM) is one of the most harmful traditions still practiced in many parts of the developing world, including Kenya. The practice leads to permanent and irreversible health damages; however, knowledge and attitude of women towards its obstetric effects is scarce. Aim The objective of this study was to determine knowledge and attitude of women towards obstetric effects of FGM among Maasai women. Methods A hospital-based cross-sectional study was conducted at Loitokitok Sub-County Hospital among 64 Maasai women who had undergone FGM. Systematic sampling was employed to identify the respondents. Data were collected using a pretested semistructured questionnaire and analyzed through Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20.0 based on frequencies and percentages. Qualitative data were coded and categorized and thematic analysis was done. Results Half of the women were knowledgeable on obstetric effects of FGM. Majority of them, 81% (n=52), sustained perineal tears during childbirth while 53% (n=34) had postpartum hemorrhage. Majority of the respondents, 81% (n=51), had negative attitude towards FGM and 87% (n=31) would not encourage their daughters to be circumcised. Most of them, 64% (n=23), disagreed that circumcision made one a respectable woman. Conclusion Obstetric effects of FGM were fairly known and there was negative attitude towards FGM practice.

Ethnic identity, resilience, and well-being: a study of female Maasai migrants

Migration is an increasingly prevalent worldwide phenomenon. In recent years, Maasai men and women have migrated from their traditional rural villages to cities in Tanzania in growing numbers. This study explores the experience of rural-to-urban migration among female Maasai migrants and how this experience affects ethnic identity, resilience, and well-being. Thirty-one female Maasai migrants were interviewed in Swahili, Maa, or English. Researchers used a rigorous multi-pass, qualitative coding process to analyze interview transcripts. Migration-driving factors, specifically a desire for education (leading to permanent migrants) and a need to support one's family (resulting in circular migrants), influence how Maasai women adapt and respond to challenges in the city. Circular migrants hold closely to their traditional ethnic identity and remain isolated from city life, while permanent migrants modulate their ethnic identity and integrate into urban society. Increasing connections among female Maasai migrants might create a more resilient community leading to improved health. Pilot workshops with this aim are being implemented.