M3 Of Timber Research Articles

Workability and productivity among CTL machine operators – associations with sleep, fitness, and shift work

ABSTRACT Operational performance of fully mechanized cut-to-length (CTL) harvesting varies greatly due to the human factor i.e. the machine operator. This study investigated how CTL machine operators’ workability index (WAI), personal lifestyle choices, seasons, and shift work affected operational performance. Research evaluated 14 volunteer CTL machine operators for a longitudinal study with continuous data collection of productivity, activity level, sleep, and follow-up on a workability index questionnaire and fitness test every three months over a year. The study analyzed the production of 152 745.5 m3 of timber combined with self-tracking data. Operators’ relative productivity (Pr) had an increasing trend whilst WAI increased, thus WAI seems to work well also for forestry applications. Physical fitness (VO2max) didn’t seem to connect with Pr and WAI had only a slightly increasing trend when VO2max increased. The participants slept longer in the evening shift than in the morning shift (p < 0.000) consequently catching up on their sleep deficit from the morning shift period. Furthermore, operators’ higher sleep value (SV) in the evening shift increased Pr in the final fellings. The results should be of interest to both practitioners and researchers interested in the productivity of harvesting operations.

Fuel and Time Consumption in Alpine Cable Yarder Operations

A survey was conducted on 12 cable yarding operations in northern Italy, with the purpose of determining fuel consumption and time use. The observation unit was the individual operation, intended as all the activities needed to complete the harvesting of a sale (mean = 500 m3 of timber). All teams were equipped with a tower yarder, an excavator-based loader or processor and a truck or a tractor with trailer, if intermediate transportation to a larger roadside landing (two-staging) was required. The crew size was 3 or 4 operators. Time and fuel use were recorded separately for the following tasks: relocation; set up &amp; dismantle; commuting; yarding; processing and/or loading; major delay events. Fuel consumption averaged 5.1 L m−3, of which 2.2 L m−3 was incurred by two-staging. In general, the yarder accounted for less than half the total fuel consumption of the operation: the processor was indeed the main consumer. Relocation had a very small incidence on time and fuel use. Set up and dismantle did not incur significant fuel consumption but occupied a meaningful share of total time (mean = 22%). Commuting also incurred unexpectedly large (and generally neglected) fuel and time use—with means at 13% and 7%, respectively. Technology developments aimed at reducing fuel consumption should target both main consumers: the yarder as well as the excavator-based processor. Significant benefits would also be achieved through improved planning and infrastructure development, aimed at minimizing the need for intermediate transportation (i.e. two-staging).

Managing forests for old-growth attributes better promotes the provision of ecosystem services than current age-based old-growth management

Old-growth forests with complex structural attributes and large trees are rapidly transformed to more homogenous secondary forests through logging, reducing ecosystem services such as carbon storage, water provision and biodiversity. In British Columbia (BC), Canada, a century of logging resulted in strong pressures in the perceived dichotomy of conserving or logging the remaining old-growth. There is an urgency to determine if the current conservation policy for old-growth forests (e.g. old-growth management areas - OGMAs) primarily based on stand age is adequate to protect old-growth structural attributes and their ecosystem services (ES) while leaving opportunities for timber harvesting within timber harvesting tenures. We applied a systematic conservation planning tool (PrioritizR) to design and evaluate attribute-based old-growth reserves as an alternative to the current age-based OGMAs, in a Community Forest (123,695 ha), managed primarily for timber. Old-growth, timber, carbon, tree diversity, and water services were mapped using Aerial Laser Scanning (ALS), and field measurements were used to ground truth with the random forest machine-learning algorithm. Then, “PrioritizR'' was used to identify optimal reserve's networks for age, old-growth attribute, carbon, water, and a combination thereof. We found that the attribute-based old-growth reserves had significantly higher ESs provisioning than the age-based OGMAs. In addition, tradeoffs with timber harvesting were reduced when we simultaneously prioritized old-growth attributes and water values. Finally, while timber harvesting affects the provision of ESs by up to 11.8% ES loss for each 1% timber harvested (∼283,150 m3 of timber), an increase in the area used for old-growth conservation did not affect priority areas for timber harvesting until 22.6% of the study area was set aside (∼30,316 ha) (more than threefold increase of the current OGMAs' area, 8,611 ha). Such results indicate that the conservation of old-growth via attribute-based OGMAs can help maintain the provision of multiple ESs in the landscape, including sustainable timber harvesting.

Capacity Planning of Timber Harvesting in Windthrow Areas

Digitization can help the forest industry to improve cost efficiency and to reduce possible environmental impacts. In the context of this study, models were implemented using the example of windthrow processing, which enables a capacity planning for carrying out timber harvesting. For capacity planning, it is necessary to estimate the time required by the harvesting systems. For this purpose, existing productivity models were analyzed, the models were validated and adjusted, and the time required for each harvesting system and calamity area was calculated using stand and terrain parameters. Depending on the scenario and the preferred harvesting system, the time for harvesting the timber in an almost 200-hectare windthrow area in a case study region in Carinthia (Austria) varied. The harvesting with cable yarder and tractor takes about 26,000 machine hours and 86,000 man-hours. Harvesting operations with cable yarder and harvester-forwarder has proven to be the most productive with a duration of around 20,000 machine hours and 70,000 man-hours. Depending on the scenario, in windthrow areas, forest workers are needed for 28 to 42 min to fell, delimb, buck and extract 1 m3 of timber to the forest landing.

РЕЗУЛЬТАТЫ ЭКСПЕРИМЕНТАЛЬНЫХ ВЫДЕРЖЕК БРИКЕТИРОВАНИЯ ЛЕСОСЕЧНЫХ ОТХОДОВ В УСЛОВИЯХ ЛЕСНЫХ ТЕРМИНАЛОВ

About 100 million m3 of timber waste is generated at forest terminals in the Russian Federation, with a harvesting volume of about 500 million m3 of timber. Waste generated at the terminal can be used to produce generator gas, but this requires preliminary preparation of the raw materials. A homogeneous structure of raw materials is recommended for the efficient use of gas generating plants. It can be achieved, for example, by briquetting the waste after it has been crushed. At the same time, the process of briquetting waste at forest terminals will differ from briquetting in the conditions of specialized enterprises. Timber terminals, which are temporary warehouses for timber, usually do not have a centralized electricity connection. The use of internal combustion engines as power plants significantly increases the cost of the woodworking process, since the cost of fuel is quite high, and the efficiency of internal combustion engines is much lower than that of electric motors. In this regard, the search for the most optimal mobile power plants for power supply of forest terminals is a very urgent task. It is preferable to use lighter presses at terminals, since the requirements for density and strength of briquettes for gas-fired plants are lower than for biofuels intended for sale. Known studies are focused mainly on the production of fuel briquettes sold to third-party consumers with a density of more than 1000 kg/m3. The strength is sufficient at a density of briquettes up to 800 kg/m3 for feeding briquettes into gas generating plants. The deformation characteristics of the compacted material will be different in the indicated density range. It requires further experimental studies

Prospective carbon balance of the wood sector in a tropical forest territory using a temporally-explicit model

Selective logging in tropical forests is often perceived as a source of forest degradation and carbon emissions. Improved practices, such as reduced-impact logging (RIL), and alternative timber production strategies (e.g. plantations) can drastically change the overall carbon impact of the wood production sector. Assessing the carbon balance of timber production is crucial but highly dependent on methodological approaches, especially regarding system boundaries and temporality. We developed a temporally-explicit and territory scale model of carbon balance calibrated with long-term local data using Bayesian inference. The model accounts for carbon fluxes from selective logging in natural forest, timber plantation, first transformation and avoided emissions through energy substitution. We used it to compare prospective scenarios of development for the wood sector in French Guiana. Results show that intensification of practices, through increased logging intensity conducted with RIL and establishment of timber plantations, are promising development strategies to reduce the carbon emissions of the French-Guianese wood sector, as well as the area needed for wood production and hence the pressure on natural forests. By reducing logging damage by nearly 50%, RIL allows increasing logging intensity in natural forest from 20 m3 ha−1 to 30 m3 ha−1 without affecting the carbon balance. The use of logging byproducts as fuelwood also improved the carbon balance of selective logging, when substituted to fossil fuel. Allocating less than 30000 ha to plantation would allow producing 200000 m3 of timber annually, while the same production in natural forest would imply logging more than 400000 ha over 60 years. Timber plantation should be preferentially established on non-forested lands, as converting natural forests to plantation leads to high carbon emission peak over the first three decades.We recommend a mixed-strategy combining selective logging in natural forests and plantations as a way to improve long-term carbon balance while reducing short-term emissions. This strategy can reduce the pressure on natural forests while mitigating the risks of changing practices and allowing a diversified source of timber for a diversity of uses. It requires adaptation of the wood sector and development of technical guidelines. Research and monitoring efforts are also needed to assess the impacts of changing practices on other ecosystem services, especially biodiversity conservation.

Professionals’ Feedback on the PEFC Fair Supply Chain Project Activated in Italy after the “Vaia” Windstorm

In the fall of 2018, the “Vaia” windstorm grounded around 8.5 million m3 of timber in northeastern Italy. Soon after, the Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC) Italy activated a project called “fair supply chain” to promote the purchase of timber from the damaged areas at a reasonable price. The initiative was addressed at forest owners, forest and processing enterprises, retailers, and supporting organizations. This study reports the results of a survey performed to assess the effectiveness of the project two years after its launch. The survey, in the form of a questionnaire submitted to all adhering organizations, investigated different aspects such as motivations for adherence to the project, satisfaction with the project, sale of the labeled material, and promotion of the specific label. The results provide a detailed outline of the above aspects. Through the various findings, the project is perceived as effective in supporting the region, enhancing an organizations’ image, and limiting price fall. Yet, further efforts should be aimed at increasing networking and business opportunities. Some recommendations are also offered for similar projects in the future, as forest disturbances are increasing worldwide in frequency and intensity due to climate change.

Operational Parameters of Logging Trucks Working in Mountainous Terrains of the Western Carpathians

Timber haulage is the last phase of the raw timber production process, necessary to transport timber to the customer. To improve the efficiency of logging truck operations, it is necessary to observe and assess several operational parameters through the electronic systems installed on the logging trucks. Measurements for this study were conducted for three logging truck types, which hauled 24,648 m3 of timber over 54,857 km and 1232 round trips. The RMC system was used for truck monitoring, equipped with a CAP04 capacitance sensor and a WGS 48 GPS module. The monitoring was continuous, lasting 27 to 74 weeks. Data acquired were evaluated via regression and correlation analyses and ANOVA. The results showed a moderately strong negative correlation between haulage productivity and haulage distance, ranging from r = −0.47 to r = −0.68. Simultaneously, a rather low efficiency of timber haulage was found for long-range haulage caused by legislation-based small utilization of the load-carrying capacity of the logging trucks. This showed in increased fuel consumption per production unit (2.01 Lm−3) as well as increased carbon emissions production (5.54 kg m−3).

Operational Costs of Mid-Performance Forwarders in Czech Forest Bioeconomy

Cut-to-length (CTL) operations are expanding in Central European bio-economies. However, they are costly, so efficiency must be maximized. The objective of this study was to analyze direct operational costs of three forwarders from the year 2006 until 2019. Annual amortization, services, materials, and personnel costs were analyzed and compared through ANOVA, trends were analyzed through linear regression. Forwarders LVS 5, John Deere 1010, and John Deere 1110E were deployed in coniferous forest stands with a mean stem volume between 0.10 and 0.84 m3/stem, forwarding distance between 261 and 560 m. The machines forwarded between 4045 and 34,604 m3 of timber per year, over operational times between 490 and 3896 MH (machine hours)/year, reaching machine utilization between 58% and 89%, machine productivity between 3.5 and 12.3 m3/MH, and costs between 20.95 and 84.39 €/MH. The most substantial were personnel costs (35 to 66% of the total costs), followed by materials (14.9–27.1%), amortization (12.5–15.7%), and services (3.3–22.1%). Differences between total operational costs per m3 of machines with different engine powers were not observed.

Challenging agent-based simulation for forest operations to optimize the European cable yarding and transport supply chain

ABSTRACT In the steep terrain of the European Alps, cable yarding still plays an important role. To maintain low costs of timber harvesting and improve the productivity of cable yarding operations, system integration by mounting of a tower yarder, crane, and processing unit onto a single carrier is the major pathway of innovation. In particular, under mountainous conditions, with small landings at the forest road and high production rates, cable yarding systems require well-coordinated transport to available storage space at the landing. Otherwise, the operation will run out of storage space and be shut down until serviced by a log truck. To investigate the system behavior and determine the overall performance effects, an agent-based simulation model was developed. The impact of the storage capacities, number of trucks employed, weather conditions, and timing of truck orders were evaluated. Cable yarders, trucks, and individual yarding lines form a population of agents placed in the spatial model environment, acting as the top-level agent. To harvest and transport an assumed volume of 52,500 m3 of timber from 65 different harvesting sites with 150 yarding lines, 301 days are required, in the best case. For the worst case, 484 days are required to complete all operations. Early information flow of the storage level at the landing saves a majority of the waiting cost if the storage capacity at the road is low and the number of trucks high, with 2.5 € m−3. The results also show that adopting measures to increase the storage capacity at the landing will lead to less sensitive reactions in the supply chain.

Rut Depth Evaluation of a Triple-Bogie System for Forwarders—Field Trials with TLS Data Support

In 2019, the machine manufacturer HSM presented a forwarder prototype for timber hauling in cut-to-length processes fitted with a new 10-wheel triple-bogie (TB) setup approach aimed at promoting sustainable forest management by reducing the ecological impact of forest operations, especially under soft-soil working conditions. The purpose of our study was to assess the resulting soil-protection effect emerging from additional wheel-contact surface area. For this, the rut development under known cumulative weight, related to the soil conditions of shear strength and moisture content, was recorded for later comparison. Additional terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) was used to generate a multi-temporal digital terrain model (DTM) in order to enhance the data sample, assess data quality, and facilitate visualization of the impact of local disturbance factors. In all TB configurations, a rut depth of 10 cm (5.8–7.2 cm) was not exceeded after the hauling of a reference amount of 90 m3 of timber (average soil shear strength reference of 67 kPa, volumetric water content (VMC) 43%). Compared to a reference dataset, all observed configurations ranked in the lowest-impact machine categories on related soil stability classes, and the configuration without bogie tracks revealed the highest machine weight to weight distribution trade-off potential.

Forwarder Productivity in Salvage Logging Operations in Difficult Terrain

Large scale windthrow salvage logging is increasing in Central Europe because of the growth of severe atmospheric events due to global heating. Sustainable forest operations in these conditions are challenging in terms of both productivity performances and safety of the operations. Fully mechanized harvesting systems are the preferred solution on trafficable terrains and proper slopes. However, different work methods and logistic organization of the operations could largely change the overall performances. The study observed three harvesting sites based on fully mechanized cut-to-length systems and located in areas affected by the Vaia storm, which hit north-eastern Italy in October 2018. The objectives were to estimate forwarder productivity in salvage logging in difficult terrain and to identify significant variables affecting this productivity under real working conditions. Time and motion studies were carried out and covered 59.9 PMH15, for a total of 101 working cycles, extracting a total volume of 1277 m3 of timber. Average time consumption for each site was 38.7, 42.2, and 25.1 PMH15 with average productivity of 22.5, 18.5, and 29.4 m3/PMH15, respectively, for Sites A, B, and C. A total of seven explanatory variables significantly affected forwarder productivity. Average load volume, maximum machine inclination during loading, and number of logs positively affected the productivity. On the contrary, travel distance, load volume, maximum ground slope during moving and loading have a negative influence. With an average travel distance of 500 m, the productivity resulted 20.52, 16.31, and 23.03 m3/PMH15, respectively, for Sites A, B, and C. An increase of 200 m of travel distance causes a decrease in productivity of 6%.

Monitoring the Quality and Quantity of Beechwood from Tree to Sawmill Product

The analysis evaluates the potential and methods of the respective assessment of beech trees, beech logs and sawn timber. The objective of the study was to assess the impact of the quality of the incoming raw material (tree) on the quality and quantity of products – obtained at the sawmill. The study presents a model that indicates the relations between the assessment of the quality of a standing beech tree and the quality of the sawmill products obtained from its wood. In addition, relations between individual quality classes of sawlogs, pulpwood, energy wood and sawn timber are shown. Standing trees were assessed in three sites according to the national 5-grade quality scale, assortments produced from selected trees pursuant to the EN 1316-1 standard, and sawn timber produced from assortments according to the rules of the European Organisation of the Sawmill Industry (EOS). In total, 87.04 m3 of timber was harvested. In higher quality trees (quality 1 and 2), the shares of sawlogs were between 53% and 72% of gross tree volume, but in the poorest quality trees, the shares were only between 23% and 36%. What remained was pulp and energy wood. In trees of excellent quality (quality 1), sawlogs of the highest quality prevailed (A and B quality grade), while sawlogs of C and B quality prevailed in trees of lower quality. Covered knots and heart defects were typically the decisive criteria for classifying sawlogs quality in all three sites. A total of 30,786 m3 of unedged timber was sawn from the sawlogs, which comprised 35% of the total gross quantity of trees on average. Nine percent of the sawn timber was classified into the A–EOS class (top quality), 27% into the B–EOS class and 47% into the C–EOS class. Seventeen percent of the timber was only suitable for post-processing. The crucial criteria for classifying sawn timber were as follows: dead and rotten knots, heart, curvature and cracks. Above-average sawlogs (A and B quality grade) was mainly obtained from trees of better quality. Relations between the quality of trees, sawlogs and sawn timber indicated the suitability of classifying standing trees and sawlogs, since it was possible to produce sawn timber of higher quality from quality trees or logs. The model presents a rare attempt to establish and monitor quality and quantity from standing tree to end product.

Situation of Armillaria spp. and Heterobasidion spp. in Slovenia

Species of the genus Armillaria and Heterobasidion are among the most common causes of stem and root rot in Slovenia. Armillaria spp. infects deciduous and coniferous trees, while Heterobasidion spp. mainly threatens Norway spruce (Picea abies), pines (Pinus spp.), and silver fir (Abies alba). On the basis of the data about the sanitary felling of infected trees, we estimated the current state and calculated the proportions represented in total felling, total sanitary felling, total sanitary felling due to diseases, in wood stock, and in increments from 2013 to 2017. Since 2014, there has been a constant increase in the sanitary felling of deciduous and coniferous trees due to infections with Armillaria spp. In 2017, 32,849 m3 of timber were harvested due to Armillaria spp. Given the present situation, we assume that the amount of sanitary felling will continue to increase, but it will not account for large shares in wood stock or increment (&lt; 1 %). In 2017, sanitary felling of infected conifers represented 27.6 % of all sanitary felling due to diseases. In the case of deciduous trees, the share was lower, i.e. 7.1 %. Armillaria spp. was the main cause of sanitary felling due to disease (51.9 %) in the Postojna forest management unit (FMU), while elsewhere shares of up to 10 % were recorded. With Heterobasidion spp., the amount of felling is decreasing over the years. In 2017, 33,922 m3 of wood, accounting for 15.7 % of the total sanitary felling due to disease, were felled due to Heterobasidion spp. A comparison of the felling of Norway spruce, silver fir, and Scots pine due to Heterobasidion spp. shows the different proportions of felling within the total sanitary felling due to the diseases. In Norway spruce, it is on average 79.5 %, in silver fir 12.9 %, and in Scots pine 34.3 %. We assume that the volume of timber harvested due to Heterobasidion spp. will gradually decrease over the years due to the lower wood stocks of Norway spruce, which has recently been hit by numerous natural disasters and infestation of bark beetles. However, the incidence will be higher due to climate change affects.

Communicating the amount of windstorm induced forest damage by the maximum wind gust speed in Finland

Abstract. Windstorms are natural disturbance agents in forests playing a role in natural forest regeneration. In Finland, the most severe individual windstorms have commonly damaged 2–4 million m3 of timber. In addition to financial losses caused to forest owners, windthrown trees have in many cases seriously disrupted the functionality of the national power grid. Communicating windstorm risks in duty forecasting is difficult. In this study, we aimed at developing windstorm impact estimates for forest damage in Finland to help the forecaster to improve communication of the risks of windstorms. We have compared the volume of forest damage caused by the most intense windstorms in Finland during the recent decade to the observed maximum inland wind gust speeds associated with the same windstorms. It was found out that the volume of forest damage follows approximately a power relation as a function of wind gust speed with a power of ∼10. This is a tentative estimate because of a short time series and small number of inspected windstorms. Moreover, also wind direction, location of the affected area and soil properties among other factors have an impact to the amount of damage as illustrated in our inspection. Despite the shortness of the time series, we believe that our results demonstrating the steep increase in the impacts of windstorms with an increasing windstorm intensity are valuable. However, more detailed investigations with longer time series are needed in order to more specifically communicate the windstorm risks and their impacts in boreal forests.

Factors affecting forwarder productivity

Modern forwarders are an effective extraction option for timber harvesting operations that provide the opportunity for higher levels of mechanization. With their ability to carry logs from the forest to the roadside or processing areas, they have an established lower environmental impact in comparison to tree-length skidding options. However, little is published regarding their productivity potential or the factors that influence productivity. Three case studies were carried out; (1) a selective harvest in Calabria, Italy, with a smaller 12 t capacity John Deere 1110E, (2) a clear-cut on the West Coast of New Zealand, with a larger 19 t capacity John Deere 1910E and (3) a larger clear-cut operation in Canterbury, New Zealand, with two John Deere 1910E forwarders. An elemental time and motion study was used resulting in 73.4 h of detailed data, with 159 cycles extracting 2241 m3 of timber. Productivity models were created for all three sites as well as one combined model. Average cycle time was 33.2, 24.2 and 22.8 min, and average productivity 24.6, 37.1 and 42.7 t per productive machine hour, respectively. Cycle time was the fastest, and consequently productivity the highest, at the Canterbury site where the terrain roughness was low, overcoming any effect of the average small piece size (0.59 m3). Travel speed was slowest at the West Coast site showing the effect of wet and difficult terrain, with travel empty speed being just 3.8 km/h, compared to 6.7 and 6.9 km/h at the other two sites. Productivity at the two clear-cut operations was significantly higher than the selective cut, compounded by the use of the larger capacity forwarders. Distance and payload were significant factors for each cycle time model; in the combined model the sites were also significant. The calculated unit cost of forwarder extraction in the sites ranged from €2.55 to €4.70/m3. For regions such as southern Italy that have relatively low levels of forest mechanization, this information can be used to help design and improve more traditional labor-intensive harvesting systems.

EXPORTATIONS DE BOIS DU CAMEROUN VERS LE TCHAD : UN SUCCÈS COMMERCIAL MAIS UNE LÉGALITÉ DÉFAILLANTE

L’importance et les moyens mis en œuvre pour importer des sciages au Tchad en pro- venance du Cameroun sont peu documen- tés. Deux enquêtes ont été réalisées pour dresser le diagnostic actuel de cette filière. D’une part, un suivi des flux de sciages a été assuré à N’Djamena et à Moundou de juillet à décembre 2015. D’autre part, des entretiens ont été conduits avec 16 personnes pour caractériser les proces- sus suivis pour importer et dédouaner le bois provenant du Cameroun. Selon nos enquêtes, le volume de sciages arrivant au Tchad à partir du Cameroun s’établit à 79 000 m3 sur la période d’enquête, soit probablement environ 210 000 m3 par an. C’est plus qu’un doublement de l’activité par rapport aux estimations réa- lisées en 2009. Presque la totalité des sciages importés au Tchad est constituée de « bois blancs » et ils sont produits avec des moyens artisanaux. Seulement 25% de ce volume est enregistré par les douanes tchadiennes. Les procédures officielles d’importation sont longues et coûteuses au Tchad. Les acteurs de la filière ont donc mis en place une « filière courte » de dédouanement du bois, qui se caractérise par une sous-déclaration des volumes importés et le versement de pots-de-vin. Cette pratique engendre un manque à gagner fiscal d’environ 3 mil- liards de FCFA pour l’État tchadien, mais elle procure des bénéfices importants aux officiers des douanes, aux transitaires, aux commerçants et aux consommateurs finaux de sciages. Plusieurs mesures sont envisageables pour modifier ces pratiques informelles. Côté demande, au Tchad, le changement de statut fiscal des produits bois, la sanction au moins ponctuelle de certains fraudeurs, et l’instauration de primes liées à l’application de la loi par les contrôleurs pourraient être combinés pour faciliter la légalisation de ce commerce. Côté offre, au Cameroun, l’enjeu majeur est de mieux réguler les pratiques d’ex- ploitation et de commerce du bois dans les forêts communautaires.

The extraordinary windstorm of 7 December 1868 in the Czech Lands and its central European context

ABSTRACTAn extreme windstorm that took place on 7 December 1868 in the Czech Lands is analysed by means of rich documentary evidence from narrative sources, damage records, forestry journals and newspapers. Early meteorological measurements and a numerical atmospheric reanalysis support the documentary reconstruction. The windstorm reached hurricane‐force over the Czech Lands between 0900 and 1600 of local mean time and was related to the passage of a cold front. The high winds, achieving hurricane‐force, led to loss of human lives and many other casualties, as well as to severe damage to buildings and other structures. In particular, the documentary sources facilitate a quantitative reconstruction of the massive windthrow that occurred in forested areas across the Czech Lands, where the windstorm damaged at least 8 million m3 of timber, which is arguably more than has been lost to any single similar event since. Reasons for the extreme windthrow, apart from wind forces and destabilization arising from wet and thawed soils, were found in increased vulnerability arising out of old, dense and mono‐species conifer stands and inadequate clear‐cutting and thinning measures. For the Czech Lands, this event was the most damaging windstorm in the 19th century. Moreover, damage reports are found from the British Isles, the Netherlands, Belgium and Germany to Austria, the Czech Lands and Poland, documenting its disastrous effects on a (sub‐)continental scale.

Situation Analysis of The Timber Producers in The Turkey Central Anatolia Region

It is necessary for producers to use their economic resources and integrate to foreign markets in order to survive. By doing so, they contribute to national economic growth and provide employment opportunities. Since it is crucial for a country to make use of the present raw material, we analysed the common problems that timber producers face and tried to find solutions to these problems. For this purpose, we conducted this study using the survey technique on timber producers in the provinces of the Central Anatolian Region. According to data we obtained, 89% of the producers use natural drying method, all of them determine product prices according to the cost, and process a minimum of 15 m3 of timber daily. The fact that the most of the participants were either elementary school or high school graduates shows that the education level of this industry is insufficient compared to other enterprises. Also, 98.2% of the participants didn’t export their products. This is a serious concern and possesses a danger for the future of the enterprises. Keywords: forest product industry, raw ıssues, timber production, business problems

Techno-economic analysis of CHP system supplied by waste forest biomass.

Poland, as for Europe, is a country with an average forest cover of approximately 30%. In these forests, more than 37M m3 of wood, mostly coniferous (over 80%), is harvested per year. In 2012, 4.2M m3 of sawn timber was produced (sawn timber without factory lumber). At the same time, in Poland there are over 8000 sawmills, whereas only about 700 of them saw over 90% of the harvested timber. So much fragmentation is a major cause of low sawmills innovation, particularly of those small ones. However, in recent years, a trend of development in this sector is noticeable, and it is through rationalisation of material and energy economy. One of the methods to increase the technical and economic effectiveness of enterprises involved in woodworking is to build in the combined heat and power system (CHP) plant with the ORC system into the existing infrastructure, which will be matched to the needs of the company. This article presents an analysis of the profitability of the investment based on the example of a medium-sized company sawing approximately 50,000 m3 of timber per year, and the economic analysis was performed for prices and costs valid in Poland. The analysis made for the 1650 kW(el) organic Rankine cycle (ORC) system, has resulted in a profitability index PI = 1.3, on the assumptions that the ORC system operates for 6000 h y(-1), will be purchased at the price of 4500 € kW(el)(-1) and at the price of electricity sales of 130 € MWh(-1).