Lymantriidae Research Articles

Reassessing the Diversity of the Arthropod-Pathogenic Genus Pandora Batko (Entomophthoromycotina; Erynioideae)

The fungal order Entomophthorales occurs worldwide, with most species infecting arthropods as pathogens. Species in this order can cause epizootics and change the behavior of infected hosts. Molecular data are available only for 20% of the known species, and distributions of species are seldom summarized. Significant diversity of hosts, poor molecular data availability, and poor resolution of the phylogenetic relationships within this fungal order suggest that the diversity of these fungi is not sufficiently described. The subfamily Erynioideae includes 111 arthropod pathogens, divided among six genera, with the genus Pandora being one of the most diverse genera. Sequences of 18S, 28S, and ITS for two species are used to place these Pandora species in a phylogenic tree of the subfamily; this tree also supports our synonymy of the genus Furia with Pandora. Among the two species specifically covered in this paper, Pandora gloeospora was observed during epizootics occurring in mushroom flies (Diptera: Sciaridae) on Agaricus bisporus cultures in Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Maryland (US) mushroom farms and also in Florida on Pleurotus sp. Outside the US, P. gloeospora was found infecting several Nematocera (Diptera) in Europe (France) and Asia (China). Pandora sylvestris n. sp. was collected during epizootics occurring in larvae of hickory tussock moths, Lophocampa caryae (Lepidoptera: Erebidae), in hardwood forests in Michigan and Vermont.

A revision of the genus Neoliparina Schultze, 1934, with descriptions of three new species (Lepidoptera, Erebidae, Lymantriinae)

The tussock moth genus Neoliparina Schultze, 1934, has been regarded as monotypic since its erection 90 years ago, however, investigation into material housed in the Lymantriinae collections of the African Natural History Research Trust revealed a further three species belonging to this genus, which are described in this paper: Neoliparina smithi sp. n., N. schultzei sp. n. and N. nyonie sp. n. Schultze’s (1934) original descriptions of Neoliparina and its type species N. paradoxa Schultze, 1934 were based upon a single female specimen, and as such a detailed morphological examination of both sexes is provided in this paper. All four species show remarkably strong divergence in genitalia morphology and external habitus perhaps unusual for the Lymantriinae. The paper is illustrated with 12 diagnostic figures of adults and genitalia of both sexes of each species.

The Asymmetric Total Synthesis of the Female-Produced Sex Pheromone of the Tea Tussock Moth.

The tea tussock moth is a pest that damages tea leaves, affecting the quality and yield of tea and causing huge economic losses. The efficient asymmetric total synthesis of the sex pheromone of the tea tussock moth was achieved using commercially available starting materials with a 25% overall yield in 11 steps. Moreover, the chiral moiety was introduced by Evans' template and the key C-C bond construction was accomplished through Julia-Kocienski olefination coupling. The synthetic sex pheromone of the tea tussock moth will facilitate the subsequent assessment and implementation of pheromones as environmentally friendly tools for pest management.

Impact of genotypic mixture on soybean (Glycine max) pest population

An experiment was conducted during rainy (kharif) seasons of 2018 and 2019 at the ICAR-Indian Institute of Soybean Research, Indore, and Madhya Pradesh to study the impact of genotypic mixture on soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] pest population. A total of 16 soybean genotypes and 4 genotypic mixtures were evaluated for relative efficacy in management of insect-pests of soybean. Among the 20 treatments, the plots with genotypic mixtures had lowest population of Spodoptera exigua Hubner and at par with each other. In case of Spodoptera litura Fabricius, tussock moth, blue beetle and grey weevil management, a mixture of the genotypes JS-9560, JS-20-34, MAUS-47 and MACS-1460 was found most effective treatment. The plots with the genotypic mixtures of NRC-37, JS-9752, RSC-1046 and RKS-113 supported the least population of semiloopers. However, lowest population of leaf miner and girdle beetle was recorded in plots of JS-20-34 while the least population of stem fly was recorded in RSC-1046. The differences observed due to the genotypic combinations may be used for developing inset-pest management programmes in soybean.

Armoured Lepidopteran Caterpillars Preserved in Non-Fossil Resins and What They Tell Us about the Fossil Preservation of Caterpillars.

Resin is a plastic-like product of trees. Older occurrences of such resin are referred to as amber and are considered fossil resin. Younger resins are termed copals. Even younger ones have been dubbed defaunation resins. Non-fossil resins remain in a terminological limbo, often referred to as "sub-fossils". We report two lepidopteran caterpillars preserved in non-fossil resin: one from Madagascar, one from Brazil. Prominent hairs (=setae) and spines (=spine-like setae) of the specimens make it likely that they represent larvae of Erebidae (e.g., tussock moths and others). So far, most known caterpillars preserved in resins are either "naked" or bear protective cases; only few are armoured with spines or hairs. In particular, long-haired caterpillars such as the ones reported here are so far almost absent. Only one specimen with comparable setae has been reported from 15-million-year-old Dominican amber, but no significant details of this specimen are accessible. We briefly also review the record of caterpillars known from the Holocene, recognising that it is very sparse. The new specimens demonstrate that very hairy caterpillars can readily be preserved in resins in fine detail. Furthermore, the specimens increase the known size range of caterpillars preserved in resins, with one measuring more than 12 mm.

Seasonal incidence of insect pest of banana (Musa paradisiaca) from Gangetic basin of West Bengal, India

Present study was carried out during 2018–23 at Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Nadia, West Bengal with a view to ascertain the seasonal incidence of major insect pests and occurrence of new emerging pests of banana (Musa paradisiaca L.) crop. The study revealed that leaf and fruit scarring beetle Basilepta subcostata (Jacoby) was most dominating insect-pest followed by rugose spiralling whitefly (Aleurodicus rugioperculatus Martin). All the studied weather parameters collectively influenced 90, 87, 87 and 77% of variations in the incidence of B. subcostata (Jacoby), Odioporus longicolis (Olivier), A. rugioperculatus (Martin) and Oligonychus sapienticolus (Gupta), respectively. Barring Oligonychus sapienticolus (Gupta), all other studied insects had significant positive correlation with different weather parameters except sunshine hours that showed positive correlation with the spider mite. Besides, few insects were recorded as emerging problem of banana crop in this state like banana lace wing bug Stephanitis typica (Distant), sucking pest of banana foliage and brown tussock moth Olene mendosa (Hubner) feeding on the unfurled leaf of the seedling suckers and thus causing considerable damage.

Incidence of the tussock moth attack: Issue, crop damages and management strategies to support sustainable oil palm plantation

The problem of insect pests in the palm oil industry has shown a considerable shift during the second decade of the twenty-first century due to ecosystem and technological changes. The interaction between palm oil as a host plant and the behaviour of insect pests undergoes an adaptation process. Defoliating insects of oil palm in Central Kalimantan, at certain times, experience explosions, such as the tussock moth species Dasychira inclusa (Walker, 1856) and Calliteara horsfieldii (Saunders, 1851). Several factors led to the tussock moth explosion, including environmental factors, human resources, and management strategies. The percentage of crop damage caused by the tussock moths from mild, moderate, severe to very severe categories was 43.48%, 15.57%, 21.74% and 10.87%. The tussock moth outbreak is giving rise to restoration efforts to keep the ecosystem balance in the landscape back to normal. Efforts to maintain ecosystem balance through regular and accurate monitoring, introducing and withdrawing beneficial insects, and planting proper plant vegetation. This action is one of the keys to dealing with small pest outbreaks or significant pests. Ultimately, a diversified ecosystem provides more crop protection opportunities.

Sequential sampling plans for Orgyia trigotephras infesting Quercus coccifera forests in North Africa

AbstractThe tussock moth, Orgyia trigotephras Boisduval (Lepidoptera: Erebidae), is one of the main emerging pests of kermes oak, Quercus coccifera L. (Fagaceae), in the Mediterranean area, where it can cause the defoliation of several hectares of forests during its population outbreaks. Despite this, no specific sampling procedures to properly estimate the population density of this pest have been developed yet. The aims of this research were to develop and compare enumerative and binomial sequential sampling plans to estimate the population density of O. trigotephras in forest environments. Data were collected in four forest stands dominated by Q. coccifera in Tunisia for 7 years (from 2013 to 2019) to take into consideration the potential spatio‐temporal variability in pest density. Plant community composition was determined at the beginning of the experimental trials, and enumerative and binomial sampling plans were developed at precision levels of 0.15 and 0.25. Over the entire sampling period, the average O. trigotephras egg batch density differed significantly among sites. Sample sizes of enumerative sampling plans were approximately 39 and 109 trees to estimate an average density of 0.50 O. trigotephras egg batches per tree at the precision levels of 0.25 and 0.15, respectively. Instead, binomial sequential sampling plans required smaller sampling sizes than the enumerative sampling plan. Our findings represent the baseline to develop a program for monitoring O. trigotephras at a large spatial scale.

Transcriptome-Wide Identification of Cytochrome P450s in Tea Black Tussock Moth (Dasychira baibarana) and Candidate Genes Involved in Type-II Sex Pheromone Biosynthesis.

The tea black tussock moth (Dasychira baibarana), a devastating pest in Chinese tea plantations, uses a ternary Type-II pheromone blend containing (3Z,6Z)-cis-9,10-epoxyhenicosa-3,6-diene (Z3,Z6,epo9-21:H), (3Z,6Z,11E)-cis-9,10-epoxyhenicosa-3,6,11-triene (Z3,Z6,epo9,E11-21:H), and (3Z,6Z)-henicosa-3,6-dien-11-one (Z3,Z6-21:11-one) for mate communication. To elucidate the P450 candidates associated with the biosynthesis of these sex pheromone components, we sequenced the female D. baibarana pheromone gland and the abdomen excluding the pheromone gland. A total of 75 DbP450s were identified. Function annotation suggested six CYPs were orthologous genes that are linked to molting hormone metabolism, and eight antennae specifically and significantly up-regulated CYPs may play roles in odorant processing. Based on a combination of comparative RNAseq, phylogenetic, and tissue expression pattern analysis, one CYP4G with abdomen specifically predominant expression pattern was likely to be the P450 decarbonylase, while the pheromone-gland specifically and most abundant CYP341B65 was the most promising epoxidase candidate for the D. baibarana sex pheromone biosynthesis. Collectively, our research laid a valuable basis not only for further functional elucidation of the candidate P450 decarbonylase and epoxidase for the sex pheromone biosynthesis but also for understanding the physiological functions and functional diversity of the CYP gene superfamily in the D. baibarana.

Field Test of the Propheromones of the Whitemarked Tussock Moth (WMTM) Orgyia leucostigma (J.E. Smith) (Lepidoptera: Erebidae).

The whitemarked tussock moth (WMTM), Orgyia leucostigma (J.E. Smith) (Lepidoptera: Erebidae), is an economic pest in Nova Scotia, Canada, where it undergoes periodic outbreaks defoliating several tree species of economic value, including balsam fir, Abies balsamea (L.) Miller (Pinaceae). Herein is described a releasing device for the WMTM sex pheromone (Z,Z)-6, 9-heneicosadien-11-one based on a rubber septum, which converts pheromone precursors, such as acetals, namely (Z,Z)-11,11-dimethoxy-6,9-heneicosadiene and (Z,Z)-6,9-heneicosadien-11-one ethylene ketal, to the pheromone itself by the action of acetic acid and releases it over time. The pheromone is unstable in nature and, consequently, lures made with this compound will only attract WMTM for a day or two. The two pheromone precursors, however, are more stable, and are converted slowly into the pheromone by acetic acid impregnated in the releasing device, or by acidic conditions in the environment. The two pheromone precursors were synthesized in 2019 using a modified, previously published approach. Field trapping studies conducted from 2019-22 showed that traps baited with rubber septa loaded with either (Z,Z)-11,11-dimethoxy-6,9-heneicosadiene by itself or (Z,Z)-6,9-heneicosadien-11-one ethylene ketal plus acetic acid consistently caught significantly more WMTM than traps baited with blank septa in most experiments.

­Review of the genus Neomardara Hering, 1926 with descriptions of two new species and updated information on the distribution of the genus (Lepidoptera: Erebidae: Lymantriinae)

The taxonomy and distribution of the Afrotropical tussock moth genus Neomardara Hering, 1926 is revised and five species are distinguished based on morphological characters, two of which are described as new to science: Neomardara fontainei and N. congolana spp. n. Based on material sampled during recent fieldwork and located in collections, an updated distribution map of all species of the genus is provided. Both sexes of all species and their genitalia are illustrated in 92 diagnostic figures.

Possible Batesian mimicry to sexually different models in the tussock moth Numenes albofascia with a great sexual color dimorphism

AbstractMimicry with warning colors includes Batesian and Müllerian mimicries. If we divide mimicry by sex, there are theoretically four types of mimicry: unimodal, female‐limited, male‐limited and dual mimicry. The latter three cases cause sexual dimorphism in body color and marking pattern but are rarely reported. In this study, we show that the tussock moth Numenes albofascia is possibly a dual mimic. The wing color and marking pattern of male and female N. albofascia are completely different, with the male's pattern resembling that of the smoky moth Pidorus atratus, while the female pattern resembles that of the tiger moth Arctia caja. Body size also differs greatly between the sexes of N. albofascia, matching the mimicry model species of each sex. These moths are distributed sympatrically in Japan, and their adult seasons overlap with each other. According to lizard feeding experiments, N. albofascia is palatable, while both male and female model species are unpalatable. Actograms in the laboratory and the light trapping in the field suggest that females of N. albofascia fly actively from sunset to midnight, while males fly during the twilight period around dawn. Therefore, male and female N. albofascia might be Batesian mimics of diurnally active P. atratus and nocturnally active A. caja, respectively, and the great sexual dimorphism of this moth could be caused by dual mimicry.

Papiliomyces puniceum and Metarhizium lymantriidae: two new species from the Gaoligong Mountains in southwestern China

Two new species, Papiliomyces puniceum and Metarhizium lymantriidae, collected from the Gaoligong Mountains in Baoshan City, Yunnan Province, southwestern China, were determined by both morphological character and multilocus phylogenetic analysis. P. puniceum was confirmed to be phylogenetically related to P. shibinense and P. liangshanense, while obviously separated from them to be a unique lineage. The diagnostic features of P. puniceum were its spherical conidia and puniceus stromata solitarily on the head of Hepialidae larva. M. lymantriidae was the sister species of M. dendrolimatilis, but it was supported as a single distinct lineage. It was apparently distinguished M. lymantriidae from M. dendrolimatilis by its smaller conidia and more slender phialides Moreover, the host of M. lymantriidae was the larva of tussock moth and that of M. dendrolimatilis was the larva of Dendrolimus sp..

Mass Reproduction Outbreaks of the Phyllophagous Insects in Forests of the North-West of the European Part of Russia

Data on the species composition and dynamics of outbreaks of needle- and leaf-eating pests that pose a danger to forest stands in the Arkhangelsk, Leningrad and Murmansk regions,as well as in the Republics of Karelia and Komi were summarized and analyzed. A significant decrease in the frequency of reproduction outbreaks of certain types of needle- and leaf-eating pests was shown, which corresponds to the trends for some other regions. For the pine looper (Bupalus piniaria (L.)), the pine beauty (Pannolis flammea), the buff-tip (Phalera bucephala (L.)), the rusty tussock moth (Orgyia antiqua (L.)) and the white satin moth (Leucoma salicis (L.)), who have had a few mass reproduction outbreaks in the aforementioned regions, no significant increase in population density was observed for 25 years or more. An increase in outbreak activity and expansion of the damage area to the north is likely for the winter moth (Operophtera brumata (L.)) and the autumnal moth (Epirrita autumnata). The larch tortrix (Zeiraphera griseana) and the spruce sawfly (Gilpinia hercynia) are in the list of potential dangers as well. These species have only one, but an extremely extensive reproduction outbreak. The red pine sawfly (Neodiprion sertifer Geoffr.) and possibly the common pine sawfly (Diprion pini (L.)) will continue to play a significant role as pests of young stands. The dynamics of their outbreaks, apparently, is determined by climatic changes and, to no lesser extent, by the presence of large areas of conifers’ regeneration. An increase in the fluctuations’ amplitude of the pests populations’ density in urban plantations is likely to occur, especially the miner moths (Phyllonorycter isskii, Ph. populifoliella and Ph. apparella), for which the current climate warming is a fundamentally important factor.

Pale tussock moth, Calliteara pudibunda (Linnaeus, 1758) (Lepidoptera; Erebidae) with a focus on its situation in Türkiye

AbstractCalliteara pudibunda is a univoltine, polyphagous and native species producing periodic outbreaks which have been recorded only in Europe so far. Its larvae feed on the foliage of beech, oak and several other deciduous and coniferous trees. It is very widespread in Eurasia. In Europe, it is found between the 34th and 60th parallels. In Türkiye, it occurs mainly in coastal regions. Its outbreak range had been thought to be confined between the 48th and 57th parallels in Europe until the last two decades when outbreaks occurred in Italy and Türkiye. Therefore, the southern limit of its outbreak range can be updated as the 36th parallel. The outbreaks recur every 20–30 years, typically continue for 1–2 years, and end suddenly. Favourable meteorological conditions and a temporary rarity of parasitoids seem to be the main causes of the outbreaks. The damage on hosts is not evident until the third larval instar. The affected hosts may grow new shoots the next spring, as the larvae usually do not attack the terminal shoots. Increment loss is possible, but it may not be economically significant per se. However, tree mortality can occur with the combined effects of other stress factors. The impact of parasitoids and predators during the outbreaks is low. There are also fungal species identified from larvae and pupae, some of which might have significant potential in pest management. Additionally, Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki (Btk), polyhedrosis viruses and light traps can potentially be used, although management practices are not recommended in C. pudibunda outbreaks.

A theoretical approach to the pale tussock moth outbreak in Turkey

The pale tussock moth, Calliteara pudibunda, makes periodic outbreaks in Europe. The species made an unusual outbreak between 2018 and 2019 in Bursa, Turkey. The aim of this study is to investigate occurrence of any previous outbreak of the species in Turkey, and possible relationship among the forest management activities, temperature trends, and the recent outbreak. To investigate previous outbreaks, scientific reports, and theses both in English and Turkish, along with nature photography repositories and forums from Turkey were searched. Additionally, a questionnaire was conducted with retired Turkish foresters. Annual forest management reports related to the outbreak stand were reviewed to evaluate possible impact of the forest management activities conducted in the stand prior to the outbreak. Finally, change of size in a hypothetical C. pudibunda population was simulated by using different pupal mortality rate – temperature scenarios to predict the conditions under which an outbreak can occur. As a result, no evidence of a C. pudibunda outbreak prior to 2018 was found in Turkey. Forestry management reports revealed that two consecutive clear-cutting activities were conducted in 2012 and 2013 to open a power line in the outbreak stand. The temperature regime between 2008 and 2018 caused a dramatic increase in the simulated C. pudibunda populations.

Development of a high-efficiency sex pheromone formula to control Euproctis pseudoconspersa

The tea tussock moth (Euproctis pseudoconspersa) is one of the most destructive chewing pests in tea plantations and causes a serious allergic reaction on the skin of tea plantation workers. The sex pheromone components of its Japanese population were first identified as 10,14-dimethylpentadecyl isobutyrate (10Me14Me-15:iBu) and 14-methylpentadecyl isobutyrate (14Me-15:iBu), with a stereogenic center. Only 10Me14Me-15:iBu has been identified in the Chinese E. pseudoconspersa population. However, field tests have shown that 10Me14Me-15:iBu cannot meet the demand of effective pest control in China. To develop a high-efficiency E. pseudoconspersa sex pheromone formula, electroantennogram (EAG) recordings of (S)- and (R)-enantiomers of 10Me14Me-15:iBu and 14Me-15:iBu were obtained in the present study. The results demonstrated that the EAG responses of male antennae to (R)-enantiomers were significantly higher than responses to the (S)-enantiomers, and 14Me-15:iBu also elicited EAG activity. Field tests showed that the catch numbers of male moths by (R)-enantiomers were significantly higher (P<0.05) than those of (S)-enantiomers. Addition of 14Me-15:iBu significantly increased the catch numbers of both the (S)- and (R)-enantiomers. The efficient pheromone formula containing 0.75 mg (R)-10Me14Me-15:iBu and 0.1 mg 14Me-15:iBu showed significantly higher attractiveness than commercial pheromone products. Our study demonstrated that (R)-10Me14Me-15:iBu was the major sex pheromone component of E. pseudoconspersa, and 14Me-15:iBu might be the minor sex pheromone component. Furthermore, a high-efficiency sex pheromone formula for E. pseudoconspersa control was defined in this study.

CRISPR/Cas9 disruption of UGT71L1 in poplar connects salicinoid and salicylic acid metabolism and alters growth and morphology.

Salicinoids are salicyl alcohol-containing phenolic glycosides with strong antiherbivore effects found only in poplars and willows. Their biosynthesis is poorly understood, but recently a UDP-dependent glycosyltransferase, UGT71L1, was shown to be required for salicinoid biosynthesis in poplar tissue cultures. UGT71L1 specifically glycosylates salicyl benzoate, a proposed salicinoid intermediate. Here, we analyzed transgenic CRISPR/Cas9-generated UGT71L1 knockout plants. Metabolomic analyses revealed substantial reductions in the major salicinoids, confirming the central role of the enzyme in salicinoid biosynthesis. Correspondingly, UGT71L1 knockouts were preferred to wild-type by white-marked tussock moth (Orgyia leucostigma) larvae in bioassays. Greenhouse-grown knockout plants showed substantial growth alterations, with decreased internode length and smaller serrated leaves. Reinserting a functional UGT71L1 gene in a transgenic rescue experiment demonstrated that these effects were due only to the loss of UGT71L1. The knockouts contained elevated salicylate (SA) and jasmonate (JA) concentrations, and also had enhanced expression of SA- and JA-related genes. SA is predicted to be released by UGT71L1 disruption, if salicyl salicylate is a pathway intermediate and UGT71L1 substrate. This idea was supported by showing that salicyl salicylate can be glucosylated by recombinant UGT71L1, providing a potential link of salicinoid metabolism to SA and growth impacts. Connecting this pathway with growth could imply that salicinoids are under additional evolutionary constraints beyond selective pressure by herbivores.

Identification of a unique three-component sex pheromone produced by the tea black tussock moth, Dasychira baibarana (Lepidoptera: Erebidae: Lymantriinae).

The tea black tussock moth Dasychira baibarana Matsumura is a devastating pest in tea plantations that causes substantial economic losses. Presently, there is no effective method to control this pest other than pesticide application. The identified sex pheromone of D. baibarana could be used for detecting and monitoring this pest. Gas chromatography-electroantennogram detection showed that D. baibarana male moth antennae responded strongly to three components in the female sex pheromone gland, which were identified as: (3Z,6Z)-cis-9,10-epoxyhenicosa-3,6-diene (Z3,Z6,epo9-21:H) (I), (3Z,6Z,11E)-cis-9,10-epoxyhenicosa-3,6,11-triene (Z3,Z6,epo9,E11-21:H) (II) and (3Z,6Z)-henicosa-3,6-dien-11-one (Z3,Z6-21:11-one) (III). Dasychira baibarana uses a unique composition of an epoxydiene, epoxytriene, and dienone with the same 3,6-dienyl motif as its sex pheromone. The epoxytriene and dienone were not previously characterized as insect pheromone components. Electroantennogram analysis showed that each synthetic compound strongly stimulated male antennae, and compounds II and III elicited stronger responses than compound I. A wind tunnel bioassay and field trapping experiments proved that, ternary blends of compounds I-III attracted D. baibarana. Efficient attraction was achieved with a rubber septum baited with 500 μg of a mixture of compounds I-III at the ratio 25:20:55. The three identified compounds elicited an electroantennogram response in D. baibarana male moth antennae, and a mixture of the three components at the ratio 25:20:55 attracted D. baibarana male moths in a wind tunnel assay and field trapping experiments. This blend could be used for integrated management of D. baibarana in tea plantations. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

The complete genome sequence of an alphabaculovirus from the brown tussock moth, Olene mendosa Hübner, expands our knowledge of lymantriine baculovirus diversity and evolution.

The complete genome sequence was determined for an apparent alphabaculovirus isolated from larval cadavers of the brown tussock moth, Olene mendosa Hübner, collected during an epizootic in Coimbatore, India. The genome was determined to be a circular 142,291bp molecule, and 147 ORFs and nine homologous regions were annotated for the sequence. Analysis of the sequence confirmed that this virus, Olene mendosa nucleopolyhedrovirus (OlmeNPV), was a member of genus Alphabaculovirus in family Baculoviridae. Phylogenies inferred from nucleotide and amino acid alignments indicated that OlmeNPV was part of a group of viruses that infect moths of genus Lymantria, suggesting that OlmeNPV may have shifted hosts from a Lymantria species to an ancestral Olene species at some point during its evolutionary history. OlmeNPV was most closely related to Lymantria xylina multiple nucleopolyhedrovirus isolate 5 (LyxyMNPV-5). The genomes of OlmeNPV and LyxyMNPV-5 were distinguished not only by differences in ORF content, but by a 27 kbp region of the genome that is inverted in LyxyMNPV-5 relative to OlmeNPV. Pairwise nucleotide distances between OlmeNPV and other Lymantria spp. alphabaculoviruses indicate that OlmeNPV represents a new baculovirus species.