Lunisolar Calendar Research Articles

Representations of calendars and time at Göbekli Tepe and Karahan Tepe support an astronomical interpretation of their symbolism

ABSTRACT Göbekli Tepe, an archaeological site in southern Turkey, features several temple-like enclosures adorned with many intricately carved symbols. It is located centrally among a group of Taş Tepeler pre-pottery Neolithic sites which include Karahan Tepe and Sayburç. Here, an earlier astronomical interpretation for Gobekli Tepe’s symbolism is supported and extended by showing how V-symbols on Pillar 43 in Enclosure D can be interpreted in terms of a lunisolar calendar system with 11 epagomenal days, which would make it the oldest known example of its type. Furthermore, it is shown how Göbekli Tepe’s 11-pillar enclosures and a megalithic 11-pillar pool structure at nearby Karahan Tepe can also be interpreted in terms of the same lunisolar calendar system. Other V-symbols at Göbekli Tepe are also interpreted in astronomical terms, and it is shown how the Urfa Man statue, a wall carving at Sayburç and a statue at Karahan Tepe that display V-symbol necklaces can be interpreted as time-controlling or creator deities. Symbolic links with later cultures from the Fertile Crescent are explored. Throughout, links are made with the Younger Dryas impact and Cauvin’s theory for the origin of the Neolithic revolution in the Fertile Crescent.

Parallelism of Prehistoric Lanzarote (Canary Islands) Quesera/Cheeseboard Lunisolar Calendar and intriguing strip band channels of the City of David archaeological site (Middle East)

It has recently been discovered and widespread in worldwide media that a puzzling and unusual channel structures have appeared at the City of David archaeological site in Middle East (Al Quds - Jerusalem). No function has been agreed for them and their building age has been calculated in an uncertain time before 2800 years BC when these structures ceased to be used. We have been working in Lanzarote Island (Canary Islands) rock epigraphy and other archaeological matters in the last 20 years, and we have found that the structure of “Quesera”/Cheeseboard of Zonzamas was a lunisolar calendar similar to the Egyptian one (365 solar days and about 27.5 days) built up by aboriginal Guanches. It consists in channels carved in basaltic rocks in a precise way, which is very similar to one of the intriguing structures found at the City of David that may also represent an ancient Egyptian-like calendar. The second structure having parallel channels may be either part of another “Quesera”/Cheeseboard-like calendar or even a cart- ruts structure more widely defined in Malta as a Bronze Age construction. Both structures might also be astronomical observatories. We have proposed from our studies in Lanzarote and Malta Bronze Age cart-ruts that they also may be used to measure time and astronomic observations. This specific homology would certainly may bring Lanzarote megalithic archaeological “Quesera”/Cheese board centuries of years BC in antiquity. This so specific parallel between artifacts found in Middle East and Lanzarote could be explained by a “green” Sahara culture before desertification started 10-5,000 years BC.

Examining the Impact of the Book of Enoch, Sefer Yetzirah, and Greek Civilization on the Jewish Calendar System: An Islamic Astronomical Law Perspective

This article analyzes changes in the reference system of the Jewish Calendar. Initially, the Jewish Calendar reference was based on the movement of the Sun. However, the calendar system used by the Jewish community worldwide now refers to two celestial objects, the Sun and the Moon. This study is literature research with a qualitative approach and uses the Book of Enoch and the Sefer Yetzirah as primary sources. The authors found that the first reference system of the Jewish Calendar, which was based on the movement of the Sun (Solar), follows the description in the Book of Enoch and the Sefer Yetzirah. These two books explain the calendar system used by Prophet Idris to Prophet Moses. The Solar Calendar reference system was later replaced with the Lunar Calendar in the second century BCE. Six centuries later, the Jewish Calendar returned to using a Solar Calendar combined with the Lunar Calendar, known as the Lunisolar Calendar. The latest reference system is a mathematical calendar with the Metonic cycle that refers to the movement of the Sun and Moon. The authors argue that the influence of the Greek civilization and the adjustment of the difference between the Lunar and Solar Year caused the changes in the reference system of the Jewish Calendar.

Family companionship and elderly suicide: Evidence from the Chinese Lunar New Year

Mental health problems among the elderly have attracted increasing attention. The most serious mental health problems may result in suicide, and lack of family companionship is often speculated to be a major cause. In this paper, we use high-frequency suicide rate data and utilize a novel temporal variation in the lunisolar calendar to provide evidence on the protective effects of the Chinese Lunar New Year (when the elderly people receive unusually high level of family companionship) on elderly suicide. We find that elderly suicide rate decreases by 8.7% during the Chinese Lunar New Year, and the protective effects are stronger in counties where the typical level of daily family companionship for the elderly is lower. In addition, the dynamic effects are different for men and for women, and men are more sensitive to the shock of the Chinese Lunar New Year. We consider a variety of alternative mechanisms, and conclude that family companionship is an important channel. Our study calls for greater attention to the mental health status and suicide problem of the elderly, especially with the rapid population aging and increasing prevalence of the “empty-nest” elderly in developing countries.

POTENCIAL USE OF LOCAL WISEDOM OF SASAK (WARIGE) AS SEASONAL RAINCAST IN LOMBOK

Climate anomaly has pronounced impact on agriculture in Lombok. Occurence of drought results in crop failure. Up to date our knowledge about the cause of climate anomaly has still vey limited. Better understanding on that matter may contribute better water management and cropping strategy. The aim of this study was to examine the skill of seasonal climate forecast based on Sasak local native knowlledge (warige) which was validated with real time planting practised by farmers in different types of climate in Lombok. The output of this study is expected to be used as additional climate information for integrated crop calendar in Lombok. This study applied descriptive methods with survey technique. Data collected included Luni-solar calendar from 1950 to 2012, monthly rainfall data of 1950 to 2012 from four types of climate in Lombok. Five year daily rainfall in selected areas. To obtain moonphase at overhead sun from 1950 to 2012 it was used Kalender Jawa obtained from http:// www.kalendarjawa.com. Ten points of filed crop observation was established in each tipe of climate (C3); D3 and D4. C3 belongs to technical irrigation, D3 belongs to semi-technical irrigation and and D4 belongs to rainfed adn embung irrigation. All farmers involved in this study were also questioned whether they understand and apply warige in their seasonal crop planning. Results of this studyshowed that SCF based on Sasak local native knowledge had good skill in forecasting wetness and dryness of dry season. The different in amount of rainfall in dry and wet years is fairly significant, but usually wet year rainfall did not differ to moderate years’, neither moderate years’ to dry years’. Nevertheless warige was able to predict distribution of rainfall within month during the dry season. Thus we can predict wether it will enough rainfall for several in coming months

Sejarah Penanggalan India

The Indian calendar is a complex calendar. The variety of calendars in several regions also adds to its own uniqueness. There are calendars that use the sun as a reference, some use the sun and the moon. This paper discusses the development of the Indian calendar from the earliest times to the present. The method used in this research is qualitative and includes library research. The results obtained are that the Indian calendar has developed and has changed. The Indian calendar is divided into two namely, solar and luni-solar. The luni-solar calendar is further divided into two, namely the amanta and purimanta. The Indian calendar, which uses solar calculations, is divided into two, namely the Sayana year (used by the Indian National Calendar) and the Nirayana Year (used on a zonal basis in certain regions such as the Tamil, Orissa, Malayali, and Bengal calendars).

Dating the Birth of Jesus Christ on Hanukkah

The still controversial date of the birth of Jesus Christ (Nativity Day) is investigated by using multidisciplinary elements: historical tradition, ancient calendars (Julian and luni-solar) and astronomical calculations. The Nativity Day dates of Western—December 25—and Eastern traditions—January 6—have been compared with Kislev 25, the initial day of the Jewish feast Hanukkah, reported in an ancient source of the IV century as the Nativity Day. The same source sets the Epiphany on Tevet 6. Astronomical calculations allow us to reconstruct moon phases and ancient luni-solar calendars, and to verify whether Hanukkah can be associated to the Nativity Day of the Christian tradition. By considering the leap years wrongly introduced in the first decades of the Julian calendar, and the flexibility of the Jewish luni-solar calendar of 2000 years ago—regarding the beginning of months and embolismic years—our astronomical calculations show that the Nativity Day set on Kislev 25 is compatible with the Eastern tradition, 6 January 1 after Christ, in agreement with the year calculated by Dionysius Exiguus. Moreover, also the Epiphany is compatible with the Eastern tradition of January 6, if it is set on Tevet 6 of a year later, just in the day indicated by an ancient source of the IV century.

Chronology of calendar: Human evolution journey

Numerology is a divine science that helps in knowing about the future of a person. The assessment of numerology is based on the date of birth which is in turn based on calendars. Astronomy plays a vital role in many early civilizations, and one of its most important applications is timekeeping. Over centuries of human history, many calendars have been used worldwide to order time systematically. An essential part of timekeeping is calendars, as these are essential in religious practice, agriculture, and governance. To produce a calendar, it is necessary to determine the length of a solar year and a lunar month, known as a lunisolar calendar. In earlier times, calendars were produced by observing the different phases of the moon and sun and their relationship with fixed constellations in the sky. Also, equinoxes and solstices were considered. Today, the Western Gregorian calendar is a global standard for business and diplomatic purposes. People of various religions, nations, and societies still employ ancient calendars to mark the days of religious importance. Knowing the history of calendars helps visualize the progression of events within a given historical narrative. In other words, it helps figure out which calendar came first and what impact it had on the people who followed it. It can also be linked with current practices in numerology and astrology.

몽골제국의 위구르력과 󰡔중수대명력(重修大明曆)󰡕

The Chinese-Uighur calendar, the so-called ''Qitai calendar'', was used for a century in Mongol Ilkhanid (1256-1335). Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (1202-1274), a Persian astronomer of the 13th century, first introduced the Qitai calendar in his Īlkhānī-zij, which he compiled with Chinese astronomers at the Maragha Observatory under the order of Hulagu Khan (1215-1265). After his zij, the calender was described in a number of Islamic zijes in Iran and Central Asia. This calendar was used among the Mongols, Uighurs, and Turks of the ruling class in the Mongol Ulus. The Qitai calendar is a luni-solar calendar that combines the astronomical parameters and calculation methods of Chinese and Uighur calendars. It is known that the calendar is based on the Revised Daming-li (重修大明曆) of Jin (金) dynasty adopted in 1215 and the Futian-li (符天曆) of the Tang (唐) period. This paper, therefore, examines the contents and origins of the Qitai calendar through exploring its relationship with the Revised Daming-li and the Futian-li. Particularly, by comparing astronomical constants and calculation methods used in the both calendars, we trace the exchanges and reciprocal influence of astronomical knowledge between the East and the West during the Mongol period. As a result, we unravel how calendrical knowledge based on the Revised Daming-li had an exerted important influence on the compilation of the Qitai calendar in Mongol Ilkhan and the Shoushi-li (授時曆) in Mongol Yuan (元). Moreover, we can see how long the Qitai calendar and the Shoushi-li influenced neighboring countries in the East and the West of Central Asia, respectively.

Study on 24 Jieling Drums as Urban Cultural Landscape in Malaysia

The 24 solar terms, a knowledge system incorporated in the East Asian lunisolar calendar, reflect a typical agricultural life shaped by the astronomical and phenological nature in ancient China. The UNESCO’s Intangible Cultural Heritage embodies this Chinese tradition and culture. It is also commonly observed among Chinese diasporas in other parts of the world. Since 1988 when Tan Chai Puan and Tan Hooi Song established 24 Jieling Drums (二十四节令鼓) in Johor Bahru, Malaysia by exploring this Chinese traditional heritage, artistic performances of this vibrant music genre have effectively transmitted drumming aesthetics in Malaysian urban landscape into the Chinese cultural sphere for over three decades. This study explores a characterised link between this millennia-old Chinese cultural heritage and 24 Jieling Drums as an urban cultural landscape in Malaysia, and discusses several issues on the cultural elements applied in a diversified land through the narrative.

WHEN DID TOKHTAMYSH CAPTURE MOSCOW?

The study examines the chronological discrepancies related to the theme of the invasion of Tokhtamysh in Russia in 1382, and establishes the exact date of the fall of Moscow. This becomes possible because of author's methods developed during the study of the Old Russian lunisolar calendar.

Revisiting Sevsar

The Armenian highlands contain numerous remote sites featuring petroglyphs. Many of these rock carvings are pastoral depictions of animals, while others are abstract and complex, and one example of the latter, believed by archaeologists to date back to the Late Bronze Age (LBA), is found on an isolated site on Sevsar Mountain at an altitude of about 2700 m. The most accepted theory about the significance of these carvings dates back to the 1980s and suggests that they were representative of a lunisolar calendar. During our two recent expeditions to the site in 2017 and 2019, we noticed a cup mark in the largest circular petroglyph, deep enough to hold a vertical wooden pole, and from this we inferred a more extensive astronomical function for the carvings. In particular, the petroglyph’s intricate design of a radiating spiral and three concentric circles placed at non-equidistant radii from the centre made us consider its possible use as a sundial, with the inscribed circles representing the noon shadow lengths on solstices and equinoxes. We measured the radii of the circles north–south and the orientation of the main landscape features using a Suunto clinometer and compass. Our analysis shows that the dimensions of the petroglyph closely match actual shadow lengths in the LBA, and that the petroglyph can be reconstructed to high accuracy from theoretical ellipses. Additionally, the remote location of this site further suggests that the movement of the Sun was important to the builders, as the site may have also served as a ritualistic and initiation destination.

On the Origins of the Hijrī Calendar: A Multi-Faceted Perspective Based on the Covenants of the Prophet and Specific Date Verification

There has been much speculation as to the type of calendar that was used by the pre-Islamic Arabs and the early Muslim community. The Hijrī calendar is said to have been adopted by ‘Umar b. al-Khaṭṭāb during his Caliphate despite evidence suggesting that it was instituted as soon as the Prophet emigrated to Madīnah. In this paper, we argue that a number of competing Arabian calendars existed up until 17 AH/AD 638, after which the Hijrī calendar was adopted as the definitive calendar of the Muslims. We propose that attempts at reconciling dates emanating from different calendars for major events in the Prophet’s life led to miscalculations which subsequently affected the chronology of the sīrah. This study ultimately argues that a purely lunar calendar was used by the pre-Islamic Arabs in parallel to a lunisolar calendar, and that specific dates reported in the covenants of the Prophet and in the historical works could shed new light in reconstructing the chronology of major events in the Prophet’s life.

Introduction of a New Cycle in Replacement of Metonic: An Ideal Solution towards a Deviation Free Luni-Solar Calendar

Molad is simply an interval between two successive new moon timelines with respect to the line joining the Sun and the Earth i.e., with respect to the Sun as seen from the Earth, which in scientific terms is referred as lunation or “synodic lunar month”. Though synodic lunar month may vary by up to ±0.7 days locally, the length of mean synodic lunar month is constant over a long period of time and is a crucial value in determining the luni-solar calendar’s new months similar to Hebrew calendar’s “Rashei Hodesh”. Based on the Metonic cycle the luni-solar Hebrew calendar adds 07 intercalary months in 19 solar years. This hypothesis proposes a new cycle instead of the Metonic cycle towards eliminating the deviation of the calendar incurred in the long course of time. The research analyzed that application of the conventional Metonic cycle to luni-solar calendar is erroneous, which theoretically leads Hebrew calendar to absorb extra 11 days (approx.) by 2053 years after inception. The study pointed out that through the application of 2116 - 2053 lunar-solar years cycle instead of 235 - 228 lunar-solar months based Metonic cycle, formulation of a far better high precession luni-solar calendar is possible and also both lunar and solar sides of the luni-solar calendar became fully balanced and harmonized.

Family Companionship and Elderly Suicide: Evidence from the Chinese Lunar New Year

Mental health problems among the elderly have attracted increasing attention. The most serious mental health problems may result in suicide, and lack of family companionship is often speculated to be a major cause. In this paper, we use high-frequency suicide rate data and utilize a novel temporal variation in the lunisolar calendar to provide evidence on the protective effects of the Chinese Lunar New Year (when the elderly people receive unusually high level of family companionship) on elderly suicide. We find that elderly suicide rate decreases by 8.7% during the Chinese Lunar New Year. In addition, the protective effects are stronger in counties where the typical level of daily family companionship for the elderly is lower. By contrast, we do not find similar protective effects for young and middle-age cohorts. We consider a variety of alternative mechanisms, and conclude that family companionship is an important channel for the protective effects of the Chinese Lunar New Year. Our study calls for greater attention to the mental health status and suicide problem of the elderly, especially with the rapid population aging and increasing prevalence of the “empty-nest” elderly in developing countries. Institutional subscribers to the NBER working paper series, and residents of developing countries may download this paper without additional charge at www.nber.org.

Fire, Prayer, and Purification

Abstract Kyoto is home to a number of unique year-end festivals. This article focuses on traditions that occur during Shimotsuki and Shiwasu (the eleventh and twelfth months of the old Japanese lunisolar calendar), including the fire festivals of O-hitaki, Niinamesai, and Daikondaki; events that celebrate visiting deities, such as Daishikō; and purification rites of Shintō, Buddhist, and folk tradition, such as Kakure nenbutsu, Butsumyōe, and Sekizoro. Analysis and comparison of these rituals reveals a common motivation for their origin. As the power of the sun wanes with the winter solstice, the people of Kyoto in the past felt a need to reflect on the previous year, cleanse themselves of accumulated sin and misfortune, and pray that the coming year would bring peace, fortune, and a fertile harvest.

Cart-ruts in Lanzarote (Canary Islands, Spain) volcanoes tops point to Equinoxes, Summer and Winter Solstices

Cart-ruts have been observed in Mediterranean Basin, Eurasia and Africa. They are rock carved stripes and channels which unexpectedly converge and/or bend, not being useful for transportation use because constant parallelism is not kept. Cart-ruts came first to scholars attention in Malta and Gozo Islands where they are abundant and dated at Bronze or Temple Age of this Archipelago. A big conjoint European investment for Cart-ruts study only got a detailed inventory in several Eurasian and African countries. Age and use of Cart-ruts remains non-discovered: it is admitted that different ages and uses may not be the same for different or even same areas. Azores Archipelago Cart-ruts were left out of this study and we have recently described them at Lanzarote (Canary Islands, Spain) volcanoes tops and slopes and suggested that they could have been useful for space and time measurements. In the present study, Lanzarote is studied and Mt. Mina and Mt. Guardilama mountains Cart-ruts azimuths points to Summer and Winter Solstices sunrises respectively as measured from Quesera/”Cheeseboard” of Zonzamas, which is a prehistoric Guanche lunisolar calendar. Mt. Tenezara Cart-ruts azimuth is pointing towards Equinoxes sunrises, as observed from Zonzamas prehistoric calendar. Thus, a use for measure time and space could be a function for some Lanzarote Cart-ruts. We explain these findings in a prehistoric Guanche aborigine culture context probably common to Atlantic megalithic Bronze Age and to all Canary Islands having prehistoric inter-navigation, because all have similar rock Iberian-Guanche inscriptions and other common cultural traits. Sahara Desert abandoning by people also influenced Mediterranean and Atlantic culture. Probability that 3 out of 7 studied volcano Cart-ruts point to Solstices and Equinoxes by chance is close to zero as calculated by factorial probability methods.
 Keywords: Latin, Scripts, Canary Islands, Iberian, Guanche, Lanzarote, Fuerteventura, Quesera-Cheeseboard, Pyramids, Berber, Africa, Punic, Roman, Western Sahara, Tunisia, Canaria, Calendar, Etruscan, Basque, Cart-ruts, Usko-Mediterranean, Solstice, Equinox, Zonzamas, HLA, Genetics, Sahara. Atchano, Malta

Lunisolar Calendars, the Antikythera Mechanism, the Halieia of Rhodes and some thoughts on the Calendars of Rhodes and Kos

This paper will discuss the logic, history and development of lunisolar calendars, including the octaëteris, the Metonic Cycle and Callippic Cycle periods (particularly how the latter two are employed on the Antikythera Mechanism), as well as the years, season, history and events of the Halieia games of Rhodes (which are also attested on the Antikythera Mechanism). It will also discuss the order and seasons of the months and the day-nomenclature of the calendars of Rhodes and Kos as well as their semester systems. Here it will be argued that there were two separate calendars in operation with different starting points at both these city-states an Eponymous Calendar-Year and a Bouleutic Calendar-Year. The paper will also discuss the intercalary month Πάναμος δεύτερος at Rhodes along with various theories concerning the Διπανάμια festival there. Finally, the paper will conclude by analyzing the years in which several Rhodian festivals were celebrated, based upon which several Rhodian inscriptions will be redated.

THE CALENDARS OF SOUTHEAST ASIA. 2: BURMA, THAILAND, LAOS AND CAMBODIA

In this paper we investigate three Burmese calendars: the Arakanese, Makaranta and Thandeikta calendars. It is shown that the lunar calendar of the two first ones imply a tropical solar year, something that puts the lunar calendar out of phase with the sidereal solar calendar used and possibly indicates a Hellenistic origin. We then examine the calendars of Thailand, Laos and Cambodia, which superficially are similar to the Burmese calendars but have a completely different system of intercalation (Gislen, 2018; Ohashi, 2006). Because Thailand, Laos and Cambodia have virtually the same luni-solar calendars, the Thai calendar is examined as a typical example.

Relative Orientation of Prasat Hin Phanom Rung Temple to Spica on New Year’s Day: The Chief Indicator for the Intercalary Year of the Luni-Solar Calendar

AbstractPrasat Hin Phanom Rung, located in Buriram Province of Thailand, is an ancient temple that had been built between the 10th and 13th century. The temple, which is off east-west orientation by 5.5° towards north, has unveiled the astonishing phenomena exhibiting both astronomical and architectural intellect of the ancient builders. The phenomena involve perfect quarterly-alignments of the sun through all the fifteen doorways of the temple. The phenomenal orientation of this ancient architecture has been elucidated by several scholars—including historians, archaeologists, and astronomers—that it might be related to solar or lunar events only. However, our studies have otherwise found a clue to this mystery that it may be based on how the ancient intelligence used stars in the zodiacal constellations to regulate agricultural calendars. In this study, we find that Phanom Rung was oriented with respect to Spica such that on the day Spica set on the west-side doorway at dawn, the sun was entering Mesha Rashi (Aries). This day has a direct connection to a New Year’s Day of Saka calendar (Śaka Era), presently called Thaloeng Sok Day. Furthermore, we have found the relationship between Spica and the full moon of Caitra from which the intercalary month-year (Adhikamas) was detected.