Lumbar Facet Joint Injections Research Articles

Lumbar Facet Joint Injection: A Review of Efficacy and Safety

Facet joint arthrosis is a progressive degenerative disease that is frequently associated with other spinal degenerative disorders such as degenerative disc disease or spinal stenosis. Lumbar facet joint arthrosis can induce pain in the proximal lower extremities. However, symptoms and imaging findings of "facet joint syndrome" are not specific as they mimic the pain from herniated discs or nerve root compression. Currently, evidence for therapeutic intra-articular lumbar facet joint injections is still considered low, with a weak recommendation strength. Nevertheless, some studies have reported therapeutic effectiveness of facet joint injections. Moreover, the use of therapeutic facet joint injections in clinical practice has increased. This review article includes opinions based on the authors' experience with facet joint injections. This review primarily aimed to investigate the efficacy of lumbar facet joint injections and consider their associated safety aspects.

Comparative Evaluation of Intraarticular Facet Joint Injection Versus Medial Branch Block in Patients With Low Back Pain: A Randomised Controlled Study.

Lumbar facet joint pain may refer to the back, buttocks, and proximal parts of the lower extremities. Intraarticular facet joint injections, facet joint nerve blocks, or facet joint neurolytic procedures are popular for the management of facet joint pain. In this prospective, randomised study, 60 patients with a medical evaluation and pain pattern consistent with lumbar facet joint pain were randomly allocated to two groups. Group Ⅰ (n=30) patients were administered fluoroscope-guided lumbar facet joint injection, and group Ⅱ (n=30) patients were administered fluoroscope-guided lumbar facet joint nerve block. The primary objective is to compare the efficacy of both in managing facet joint pain in terms of pain and disability improvement. Secondary objectives were to compare the requirement for repeat injections and parameters related to the block, such as ease of administering the block, and to note the side effects pertaining to either of the blocks. There was a statistically significant improvement in pain score after injection in both groups (p>0.05). The mean pain score in both groups remained less than two at all time intervals throughout the study period (p>0.05) Excellent patient satisfaction was reported by the majority of the patients at different time intervals in both groups. Both lumbar facet joint injection and lumbar facet joint nerve block are safe and effective techniques for managing lower back pain patients. Both techniques provide adequate pain relief and disability improvement.

Comparison of intra-articular lumbar facet joint injection of platelet-rich plasma and steroid in the treatment of chronic low back pain: A prospective study

Study design: Prospective randomized clinical study. Purpose: To compare the effectiveness and safety of intra-articular platelet-rich plasma (PCP) and steroid along with radiofrequency ablation (RFA) in the treatment of chronic low back pain (LBP) due to facet joint arthropathy. Overview of literature: Facet joint pathology is an important cause of LBP—15–30% of all LBP cases. Lumbar intra-articular PRP is a relatively new method in the treatment of LBP. PRP stimulates the cells involved in regeneration. Hence, it seems a suitable option for the treatment of lumbar facet joint syndrome. Methods: We evaluated the efficacy and safety of facet joint injections in LBP secondary to facet joint arthropathy. Chronic LBP for ≥3 months (visual analogue scale (VAS) > 4), failed conservative treatment, no neurological deficit, unilateral facet joint pain, focal tenderness with hyperextension pain, and relief by diagnostic medial branch block were included. Patients were randomly allocated to Group S: Steroid (Triamcinolone) + RFA or Group P: PRP + RFA or Group R: 0.9% saline + RFA as control. Demographic, clinico-radiological, and outcome parameters were recorded till 6 months. Data were analyzed using SPSS and p < 0.05 was considered significant. Results: We studied 45 patients (n = 15 in each group) in the final analysis. Mean age was 45.7 ± 13.6 years and 60% were females in all groups. VAS decreased to 1.6 ± 0.8 (Group S) and 3.2 ± 0.8 (Group P) on day 1 ( p < 0.05). At 3 and 6 months, VAS reduced more in Group P (0.47 ± 0.5; 0.07 ± 0.2) versus Group S (2.53 ± 0.5; 3.07 ± 0.2) ( p < 0.001). Mean Oswestry Disability Index (ODI) score at baseline was 72.8 ± 7.6 (all groups). At 1 month, Group S (17.2 ± 3.2) showed better improvement than Group P (23.2 ± 3.1) ( p < 0.05). At 6 months, Group P (8.9 ± 1.2) had more decrease in ODI than Group S (29.0 ± 2.1) ( p < 0.001). NSAIDs usage and Patient Satisfaction Score (PSS) were significantly better at 6 months in Group P than Group S ( p < 0.01; p < 0.05, respectively). Conclusion: Both PRP and corticosteroid injections were determined to be effective and safe for the treatment of lumbar facet joint syndrome after 6 months of follow-up. However, autologous PRP may be a superior treatment option for longer efficacy.

Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Utilization Patterns of Facet Joint Interventions in Managing Spinal Pain in a Medicare Population.

The COVID-19 pandemic resulted in major disruptions in all aspects of human life including a decline of medical services utilized during 2020. An analysis of the impact of COVID-19 pandemic showed an 18.7% reduction in utilization patterns of interventional techniques in managing chronic pain in the Medicare population from 2019 to 2020. However, specific changes in utilization patterns of facet joint interventions have not been studied. Thus, we sought to assess the utilization patterns including an update of facet joint interventions from 2018 to 2020, with analysis of the impact of COVID-19 pandemic in managing chronic spinal pain utilizing facet joint interventions in the fee-for-service Medicare population of the United States. The present investigation was designed to assess utilization patterns and variables of facet joint interventions, in managing chronic spinal pain from 2010 to 2020 in the fee-for-service (FFS) Medicare population in the United States (US), and how the COVID-19 pandemic impacted these utilization patterns. Data for the analysis were obtained from the master database from the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS) physician/supplier procedure summary from 2000 to 2020. Results of this analysis showed significant impact of COVID-19 with overall decrease of 18.5% of all facet joint interventions per 100,000 Medicare population compared to 20.2 and 20.5% decrease for lumbar and cervical facet joint injections, 15 and 13.1% decrease per 100,000 Medicare population of lumbosacral and cervicothoracic facet joint neurolysis procedures. The results are significant in that comparative analysis from 2000 to 2010 and 2010 to 2019 showing an annual increase of 14.4 vs. 2.2%, illustrating a decelerating pattern. There were also significant growth patterns noted with decreases in facet joint injections and nerve blocks compared to facet joint neurolytic procedures. This analysis shows a significant effect of COVID-19 producing an overall decrease in utilization of facet joint interventions relative to pre-COVID data. Further, the analysis demonstrates continued deceleration of utilization patterns of facet joint interventions compared to the periods of 2000-2010 and 2010-2019.

Platelet-Rich Plasma Injections: Pharmacological and Clinical Considerations in Pain Management.

Regenerative medicine through interventional pain procedures is evolving with data demonstrating efficacy for a number of pain states in recent years. Platelet-rich plasma (PRP), defined as a sample of plasma with a platelet concentration 3 to 5 times greater than the physiologic platelet concentration found in healthy whole blood, releases bioactive proteins which can restore anatomical function in degenerative states. PRP is dense in growth factors, such as platelet-derived growth factor, transforming growth factor-beta1, basic fibroblastic growth factor, vascular endothelial growth factor, and epidermal growth factors. To date, well-designed case-control or cohort studies for the use of PRP have demonstrated efficacy in lumbar facet joint, lumbar epidural, and sacroiliac joint injections. At present, there is only level IV evidence indicating the need for larger and more carefully controlled prospective studies. PRP is utilized autogenously in order to facilitate healing and injection and has been studied in the long-term management of discogenic low back pain. In this regard, numerous studies have evaluated PRP to steroid injections in chronic pain states with favorable results. PRP represents an opportunity for a new strategy in the therapeutic treatment of degenerative states of spines, joints, and other locations throughout the body with evolving data demonstrating both safety and long-term efficacy.

Regenerative Medicine: Pharmacological Considerations and Clinical Role in Pain Management.

Purpose of ReviewLow back pain affects at least 80% of individuals at some point in their lifetime and is the fifth most common reason for physician visits in the USA. Treatment of an acute episode of LBP generally includes rest, activity modification, physical therapy, NSAIDs, and patient education.Recent FindingsA small percentage of patients will develop chronic pain lasting > 6 months duration. Platelet-rich plasma (PRP) is one of the main pillars of regenerative medicine, as its release of bioactive proteins supports the aim of RM of restoring the anatomical function in degenerative conditions. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are multipotent stem cells, multipotent progenitor cells, or marrow stromal cells found in various body tissues, including bone marrow, lung, and adipose tissue. Evidence from well-designed case–control or cohort studies for the use of PRP and MSCs in lumbar facet joint, lumbar epidural, and sacroiliac joint injections is currently described as level IV evidence. PRP and MSCs are used autogenously to help facilitate the healing process, and their injection has been studied in the long-term management of discogenic low back pain. PRP has been compared to steroid injections in the sacroiliac joint for chronic low back pain, with favorable results. MSCs have also been shown to be useful in intervertebral disc regeneration and treatment of chronic low back pain associated with degenerative disc disease.SummaryCurrently, the price for these treatments is extremely high, and thus the standard of care continues to be steroid injections and other treatments. This could change, however, with more robust data and research on the safety and long-term efficacy of biologics compared to other interventional management.

Ultrasound-guided lumbar medial branch blocks and intra-articular facet joint injections: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

There is great interest in expanding the use of ultrasound (US), but new challenges exist with its application to lumbar facet-targeted procedures. The primary aim of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to determine the risk of incorrect needle placement associated with US-guided lumbar medial branch blocks (MBB) and facet joint injections (FJI) as confirmed by fluoroscopy or computerized tomography (CT). An a priori protocol was registered, and a database search was conducted. Inclusion criteria included all study types. Risk of bias was assessed using the Cochrane risk of bias tool for randomized controlled trials and the National Heart, Lung, and Blood tool for assessing risk bias for observational cohort studies. Pooled analysis of the risk difference (RD) of incorrect needle placement was calculated. Pooled analysis of 7 studies demonstrated an 11% RD (P < 0.0009) of incorrect needle placement for US-guided MBB confirmed using fluoroscopy with and without contrast. Pooled analysis of 3 studies demonstrated a 13% RD (P < 0.0001) of incorrect needle placement for US-guided FJI confirmed using CT. The time to complete a single-level MBB ranged from 2.6 to 5.0 minutes. The certainty of evidence was low to very low. Ultrasound-guided lumbar MBB and FJI are associated with a significant risk of incorrect needle placement when confirmed by fluoroscopy or CT. The technical limitations of US and individual patient factors could contribute to the risk of incorrect needle placement.

The Effectiveness of Facet Joint Local Corticosteroid Injection in Diagnosis and Treatment of Facet Joint Syndrome

Objectives: To evaluate outcomes of lumbar facet joint injection with local corticosteroid in treatmentof chronic low back pain according to Oswestry disability Index(ODI).Patients and Methods: Interventional prospective study on 23 patients attended the outpatient clinic ofOrthopedic Surgery in Cairo University Hospitalscomplaining of chronic low back pain not responsiveto medical treatment and physiotherapy from September 2018 to august 2019.Results: The mean age of the patients was 41.17 ± 9.74 years and 47.8% were males. Facet jointcorticosteroid injection resulted in significant reduction of pain severity of patients as it ranged 5:10(mean 7.3 ±1.5) pre-injection and improved to 0 :6 (mean 3.6 ± 1.7) 3-month post injection(Pvalue:0.001)while the ODI score ranged 26:80 (mean 47.4 ±15.7) pre-injection and improved to 4:46 (mean 28.8 ±10.4) three months post injection(Pvalue 0.001).Conclusion: intra-articular facet joint injection is crucial in the diagnosis and treatment of facet jointsyndrome.

Facet Joint Injections for the Management of Low Back Pain: A Clinical Review

Introduction: Lumbar facet joints have been implicated in chronic low back pain (LBP) in up to 45% of patients with LBP. Facet joint pain (FJP) diagnosis and management are always challenging for pain physicians. FJP is not diagnosed by specific demographic features, pain characteristics, or physical findings, despite the electrodiagnostic studies and imaging modalities being available. Although comparative local anesthetics or placebo saline injections can be used, diagnostic blocks are the only reliable diagnostic measures according to the current literature.&#x0D; Methodology: A randomized, controlled clinical trial was conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of lumbar facet joint injections. A total of 229 participants were enrolled to receive facet injections with bupivacaine and steroid, medial branch blocks, or saline.&#x0D; Result: The results of this study showed that facet joint injections had little long-term therapeutic utility, but had a prognostic value compared to control injections before radiofrequency ablation. Thus, the results of this study emphasized the diagnostic value of facet joint injections.&#x0D; Conclusion: FJP is not diagnosed by demographic features, pain characteristics, physical findings, electrodiagnostic studies, or radiological evaluation as other types of LBP. Diagnostic blocks using comparative local anesthetic blocks or placebo injections are the only reliable diagnostic measures according to the current literature. Their validity, specificity, and sensitivity are considered reliable in the diagnosis of FJP. Facet joint-related anatomical, clinical, and technical knowledge is essential for successful pain management. Pain physicians should embrace all aspects of FJP management, from diagnosis to interventional management.

Effectiveness of Platelet Rich Plasma and Methylprednisolone on lumbar facet joint hypertrophy: A Quasi-experimental study

Background: Low back pain (LBP) is now regarded as the important cause of disability worldwide anda priority for future research on prevention and treatment. Facet joint hypertrophy is an importantpathogenesis of Low back pain. The aim of this study was to assess the effectiveness of Platelet RichPlasma and Methylprednisolone on Facet Joint Hypertrophy in Chronic Low Back Pain (LBP). Methods: This Quasi-experimental study was carried out on adult patients with chronic low back paindue to lumbar facet joint hypertrophy attended the Pain Medicine Unit, OPD and KOSAKA Pain Clinic,BSMMU, during the period of October 2019 to September 2020. The patients were randomly assignedto one of the two groups; group A (patients treated with PRP); group B (patients treated by withMethylprednisolone). After providing the allocated treatment, all patients undergone follow-upexamination 30 minutes after procedure, end of 1st week, end of 1st month and end of 3rd month forpain improvement by visual analogue scale (VAS) and for disability status by Roland Morris disabilityQuestionnaire (RMDQ)score. Follow up of the patients were carried out while they visited in Pain Clinicat mentioned intervals or over phone. The significance of the difference of the VAS and RMDQ score atthe end of 1st week, end of 1st month &amp; end of 3rd month were tested by using unpaired t- test andchi-square test. Results: It was observed that mean ± SD of age was 42.31 ± 7.6 years for Group A and 42.29 ± 8.0 yearsfor Group B. Most of the participants in all Group A [14 (70.0%)] &amp; in Group B [15 (75.0%)] were males.Male: Female ratio was about 2.6:1. Imaging findings shows that, Grade II degenerative changes were13(65.0%) patients of group A &amp; 12(60.0%) patients of group B. L3/4 level involvement waspredominant, 15(75.0%) patients in Group A and 15(75.0%) in Group B. The difference was statisticallynon-significant (p&gt;0.05) between groups. Mean VAS score at pretreatment &amp; after 30 minutes ofintervention were not statistically significant between groups. But end of 1st week, end of 1st month andend of 3rd month follow up, VAS score decreased in both groups, but significantly reduced in Group A.In case of disability improvement, RMDQ score more decreases in group A than group B. Conclusion: Lumbar facet joint injection with platelet rich plasma (PRP) provides better pain reliefand improvement of functional status than Methylprednisolone in chronic low back pain due to lumbarfacet joint hypertrophy. JBSA 2021; 34 (2) : 3-9

Flank pain from postherpetic neuralgia and role of erector spinae plane block

Flank pain from postherpetic neuralgia and role of erector spinae plane block

Predictors of response to medial branch block, radiofrequency ablation or facet joint injections: a retrospective study.

Aim: Low back pain is a leading cause of patient disability in the USA. Our goal was to determine association between patient characteristics and their response to lumbar medial branch block, radiofrequency ablation of medial nerves or lumbar facet joint injections. Materials & methods: Medical records for the first 100 patients who underwent lumbar medial branch block, radiofrequency ablation of lumbar medial nerves or lumbar facet joint injections between 1 September 2019 and 31 March 2020 were reviewed and demographic data were recorded. Results: At the 3-month post-procedure visit, positive responders were significantly more likely to be non obese patients (BMI <30) and those with pain <5-years. Conclusion: Obesity and chronicity of pain certainly are found to be predictors of response to the above mentioned procedures.

Case series of fluoroscopic findings and 3D reconstruction of human spinal MRIs of the space of Okada.

To better understand the unexpected spread of contrast medium observed by conventional fluoroscopic X-ray images during standard neuraxial techniques used in the treatment of pain. The support of 3D reconstruction of MRI images of structures within the lumbar spine was used to better understand the space of Okada. Lumbar facet joint and epidural corticosteroid injections in five patients under fluoroscopic guidance with loss of resistance to air or saline to identify the facet joints or epidural space. Next, in a retrospective study, the authors examined the retrodural space of Okada and the neighboring tissues with 3D reconstruction of spinal MRIs of seven patients without any demonstrable spinal pathology to better understand the characteristics of the space of Okada. Contrast medium spread to the ipsilateral and contralateral sides was observed in five patients. The contralateral spread was thought to be through the retrodural space of Okada, which is a potential space between the anterior surface of the vertebral lamina and the posterior surface of the ligamentum flavum. It facilitates communication between the contralateral articular facet joints of the spine. This study provides new evidence for the existence of the space of Okada where an unexpected contralateral spread occurred following facet joint and attempted epidural injection. The 3D reconstructions of MRIs may help us better understand the nature of the retrodural space of Okada and its clinical implications.

Ultrasound-Guided Lumbar Spine Injection for Axial and Radicular Pain: A Single Institution Early Experience.

Study DesignClinical audit via retrospective review of a database.PurposeTo report an early experience using ultrasound-guided lumbar spinal injection for axial and radicular pain in an Asian multiethnic cohort.Overview of LiteratureUltrasound-guided spine injection therapy is a comparatively new technique in the management of axial and radicular pain from degenerative lumbar spinal conditions, which may be a reasonable alternative to conventional fluoroscopic or computed tomography-guided injection.MethodsA retrospective review was conducted, involving all patients who underwent ultrasound-guided lumbar spine injection therapy at a single institution over 1 year. Patients were evaluated by two interventionists, who then performed standardized ultrasound-guided lumbar facet joint and pararadicular spinal injections.ResultsThere were 42 patients treated at our Sports Medicine Centre; with 27 patients (64.3%) receiving facet joint injections and 18 patients (42.9%) receiving nerve root injections. The majority (90.5%) of patients experienced an improvement of >30% in pain intensity at 3 months post-injection, using the Numerical Rating Scale pain score (p<0.001); with 40 patients (95.2%) reporting a reduction in Oswestry Disability Index score (p<0.001). No complications were reported.ConclusionsOur initial experience confirms the safety, feasibility, and effectiveness of ultrasound-guided lumbar spinal injection for the treatment of axial and radicular pain in an Asian multiethnic cohort.

Complications in image-guided musculoskeletal injections.

To establish the incidence and define the nature of complications occurring following image-guided musculoskeletal injections at our institution. All patients undergoing image-guided musculoskeletal injection during the study period (16/3/2016 to 24/01/2020) were included. Departmental records were reviewed to identify all patients describing possible complications following injection, what therapy was required (if any) and what the outcome was. No patients were excluded. Complications were classified as minor or major. Injections were categorised as follows: cervical spine, lumbar facet joint, lumbar nerve root, caudal epidural and 'other'. The complication rate for each individual category of procedure was compared with the combined complication rate for all other categories by constructing contingency tables and using Fisher's exact test. A total of 8226 patients underwent image-guided musculoskeletal injections within the study period. Exactly 100 patients were identified as having reported a complication, producing an overall complication rate of 1.2%. One complication was categorised as 'major', with the patient requiring expedited surgery. The remainder (99 patients) were categorised as having experienced minor complications. The incidence of complications after 'other' injections was significantly greater than for other categories of injection (1.86%, p = 0.028). There was no significant difference in the complication rate for cervical spine (0.93%, p = 0.257), lumbar nerve root (0.85%, p = 0.401), lumbar facet joint (0.67%, p = 0.326) or caudal epidural (1.29%, p = 0.687) injections. 'Other' injections were subsequently further sub-categorised by anatomical site and imaging modality used. Glenohumeral (2.97%, p = 0.0361) and sacro-iliac (3.51%, p = 0.0498) joint injections were associated with a significantly increased risk of complications. There was no difference in the incidence of complications with fluoroscopic or ultrasound guidance. In conclusion, image-guided musculoskeletal injections are safe and well-tolerated procedures. Complications are rare, occurring in just 1.2% of patients. 99% of complications are minor, either not requiring intervention or resolving with simple supportive treatment.

Update of Utilization Patterns of Facet Joint Interventions in Managing Spinal Pain from 2000 to 2018 in the US Fee-for-Service Medicare Population

Interventional techniques for managing spinal pain, from conservative modalities to surgical interventions, are thought to have been growing rapidly. Interventional techniques take center stage in managing chronic spinal pain. Specifically, facet joint interventions experienced explosive growth rates from 2000 to 2009, with a reversal of these growth patterns and in some settings, a trend of decline after 2009. The objectives of this assessment of utilization patterns include providing an update of facet joint interventions in managing chronic spinal pain in the fee-for-service (FFS) Medicare population of the United States from 2000 to 2018. The study was designed to assess utilization patterns and variables of facet joint interventions in managing chronic spinal pain from 2000 to 2018 in the FFS Medicare population in the United States. Data for the analysis were obtained from the master database from the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS) physician/supplier procedure summary from 2000 to 2018. Facet joint interventions increased 1.9% annually and 18.8% total from 2009 to 2018 per 100,000 FFS Medicare population compared with an annual increase of 17% and overall increase of 309.9% from 2000 to 2009. Lumbosacral facet joint nerve block sessions or visits decreased at an annual rate of 0.2% from 2009 to 2018, with an increase of 15.2% from 2000 to 2009. In contrast, lumbosacral facet joint neurolysis sessions increased at an annual rate of 7.4% from 2009 to 2018, and the utilization rate also increased at an annual rate of 23.0% from 2000 to 2009. The proportion of lumbar facet joint blocks sessions to lumbosacral facet joint neurolysis sessions changed from 6.7 in 2000 to 1.9 in 2018. Cervical and thoracic facet joint injections increased at an annual rate of 0.5% compared with cervicothoracic facet neurolysis sessions of 8.7% from 2009 to 2018. Cervical facet joint injections increased to 4.9% from 2009 to 2018 compared with neurolysis procedures of 112%. The proportion of cervical facet joint injection sessions to neurolysis sessions changed from 8.9 in 2000 to 2.4 in 2018. This analysis is limited by inclusion of only the FFS Medicare population, without adding utilization patterns of Medicare Advantage plans, which constitutes almost 30% of the Medicare population. The utilization data for individual states also continues to be sparse and may not be accurate. Utilization patterns of facet joint interventions increased 1.9% per 100,000 Medicare population from 2009 to 2018. This results from an annual decline of - 0.2% lumbar facet joint injection sessions but with an increase of facet joint radiofrequency sessions of 7.4%. Interventional techniques, facet joint interventions, facet joint nerve blocks, facet joint neurolysis.

Developing Neuraxial and Regional Pain Procedural Skills Through Innovative 3-Dimensional Printing Technology.

Various forms of simulation-based training, including training models, increase training opportunities and help assess performance of a task. However, commercial training models for lumbar puncture and epidural procedures are costly. To assess medical students' and residents' perception of 3-dimensional (3D)-printed lumbar, cervical, and pelvic models for mastering joint injection techniques and to determine the utility of ultrasonography-guided needle procedure training. Osteopathic medical students and residents used in-house 3D-printed gel joint models during an injection ultrasonography laboratory for mastering lumbar epidural, caudal epidural, sacroiliac, and facet joint injection techniques. After the laboratory, they answered a 17-item survey about their perception of the importance of the models in medical education and future practice. The survey also evaluated comfort levels with performing joint injections after using the models, overall satisfaction with the models, and likelihood of using models in the future. Thirty-six medical students and residents participated. Both students and residents agreed that 3D-printed models were easy to use, aided understanding of corresponding procedures, and increased comfort with performing joint injections (all P<.001). Most participants (35 [97.2%]) believed that the models were reasonable alternatives to commercial models. Over half felt capable of successfully performing cervical or pelvic (22 [61.1%]) and lumbar epidural (23 [63.9%]) injections. The majority of participants (34 [94.4%]) would like to use the models in the future for personal training purposes. Overall, 100% believed that the 3D-printed models were a useful tool for injection training. Results suggest that 3D-printed models provided realistic training experience for injection procedures and seemed to allow participants to quickly master new injection techniques. These models offer a visual representation of human anatomy and could be a cost-saving alternative to commercial trainers.

Lumbar Facet Joint Radiofrequency Ablation Versus Intra-articular Lumbar Facet Joint Injections Using Corticosteroids in the Reduction of Chronic Low Back Pain Related to the Facet Joints

Purpose: The purpose of this article is to review nonoperative treatment for chronic low back pain (CLBP) related to facet joint dysfunction and to compare the long-term pain reduction and functional improvement with lumbar facet joint (LFJ) radiofrequency (RF) ablation vs. intra-articular (IA) LFJ injections using corticosteroids. Method: A systematic search of databases included PubMed and Google Scholar. Search terms included low back pain, facet joint dysfunction, injection, corticosteroid, and RF. The search resulted in several hundred results. An advanced MeSH term search was then used to limit the effect to within the past 10 years with variations of the terms mentioned above to further narrow the results to address the clinical question which resulted in 94 citations. Results: There were satisfactory results using PubMed Advanced Search Builder to include several comparative systematic reviews and randomized controlled trials. Excluded were studies that were broad in their comparisons, including those which included treatments with physical activity modifications, oral medications, physiotherapy, and chiropractic manipulation. Conclusion: Studies suggest that there is a moderate amount of improvement in the short-term (less than 6 months) for both IA LFJ injections using corticosteroids and LFJ RF ablation; however, the RF ablation had better results for the middle (6 to 12 months) to long-term (greater than 12 months). The results established by the author's review suggest that although LFJ RF ablation and IA LFJ injections using corticosteroids are equally effective in the short-term pain management of patients with CLBP, RF is the more effective treatment for long-term pain management in patients with CLBP related to facet joint dysfunction.

Effectiveness of Ultrasonography and Fluoroscopy as a Therapeutic Imaging Modality in the Management of Lumbar Facet Arthropathy: A Prospective Interventional Study

Introduction: Lumbar zygopophyseal joint arthropathy is one of the most common causes of low back pain in adults. Historically, C-arm/Fluoroscopy has served as an image guidance tool in intra-articular facet joint injections, however, now ultrasound guidance is also a viable option. Aim: To compare ultrasonography (USG) and fluoroscopy as therapeutic imaging modalities on the basis of time taken for intervention, Visual Analogue Score (VAS) for pain and Oswestry Disability Index (ODI) at 2, 4 and 12 weeks. Materials and Methods: It was a prospective interventional study done with 62 patients who satisfied the inclusion and exclusion criteria and randomly allocated into two groups. Groups were compared on the basis of time taken for intervention, VAS for pain and ODI at 2, 4 and 12 weeks. Independent sample student t-test/Mann-Whitney U test was applied. Confidence Interval (CI) was taken as 95% and p-value &lt;0.05 was considered as statistically significant. Results: Ultrasound group had mean age of 37.75 years (range, 23-55 years) while that of Fluoroscopy group was 40.05 years (range, 20-54 years). Ultrasonography group was quicker by about 135 seconds (2 minutes and 15 seconds) which was statistically significant but there was statistically no difference between the two groups in terms of VAS and ODI at 2 weeks (p=0.107 and 0.893, respectively), 4 weeks (p=0.383 and 0.408, respectively) and 12 weeks (p=0.343 and 0.777, respectively) at 95% CI. Conclusion: Both groups showed significant improvement in pain and disability after 2, 4 and 12 weeks however there were no significant differences in pain and functional improvement between USG guided transverse view and fluoroscopy guided intra-articular lumbar facet joint injection. Therefore, USG guided transverse approach is quicker, feasible and minimises exposure of radiation to patient as well as interventionist

Predictors of Pain Recurrence After Lumbar Facet Joint Injections

IntroductionFacet joint injections (FJIs) of anesthetic and corticosteroids are useful for the diagnosis and treatment of low back pain (LBP). In the current study, we evaluated the efficacy of FJI on LBP treatment and the predictive variables of pain recurrence after FJI.MethodsWe included and followed prospectively forty-three consecutive patients with chronic LBP treated with FJI. Clinical assessments were carried out at a baseline 1 week before FJIs and after a 6-month follow-up visit using the visual analog scale (VAS) for pain, Oswestry Disability Index (ODI) for disability-specific measure and MacNab criteria for global effectiveness, and compared through analysis using paired-samples “t” tests. Multiple cox-regression analysis was used to identify the presurgical variables independently associated with pain recurrence anytime during the follow-up. In addition to the demographic, clinical, and surgical data, we also analyzed psychometric scales: Pain Catastrophizing Scale (PCS), Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI), and Beck Depression Inventory (BDI).ResultsAfter a 6-month follow-up, thirty-two patients (74.4%) showed a clinically significant reduction of pain and twenty-seven (62.8%) reported a clinically significant improvement of disability. Presurgical catastrophizing (PCS score ≥ 5, adjusted HR 4.4, CI 95% 1.7–11.3, p = 0.002) and smoking (Adjusted HR 12.5, CI 95% 1.1–138.9, p = 0.04) remains associated with pain recurrence.ConclusionFJI reduces LBP and disability of patients with unresponsive LBP. Pain-related cognitive and behavioral factors determined by pain catastrophizing and smoking were independently associated with pain recurrence after lumbar FJI. The results support the need of a multidisciplinary approach for presurgical evaluation of patients with chronic pain.