Luhmann's Theory Research Articles

LEGITIMAÇÃO, PROCEDIMENTO E FUNDAMENTAÇÃO DAS DECISÕES JUDICIAIS

This academic article intends to analyze the relation between Niklas Luhmann's theory of Legitimation by procedure and the need to substantiate judicial decisions, in order to answer whether judicial substantiation is a requirement for legitimation in Niklas Luhmann's systems theory and in accordance with the Brazilian legal system (also from a procedural perspective). To facilitate reading and understanding, some definitions regarding the concepts used by the German author in his work will be briefly provided throughout the text, which will certainly help the reader to understand the proposal and conclusions of this article.

Prolegomena to a genealogy of “society”

The article reconstructs the evolution of the semantics of one of the social sciences’ most important concepts, that of society. It follows two main systematizations, those of the societas and the societas civilis, respectively, through a millennia-long history rooted in Graeco-Roman civilization. This history exhibits remarkable continuity across time. Its modern adaptations survive to the present day. But the social sciences appear to know only the latter which, in the form of the nation-state, they adopted as their default model under the intellectual leadership of Parsons. Recent developments in the social world have rendered that model obsolete. This leaves the social sciences in dire straits, as they have failed, with one exception, to develop a persuasive alternative. The exception is Niklas Luhmann's systems theory of world society, a theory barely known outside small niche circles. The article ends on a brief speculative note about what might account for the odd tenacity of a theoretically untenable concept.

Towards the sociology of pets—Social functions of animals in contemporary societies observed from systems theoretical perspective

AbstractThis paper advocates for introducing sociology of pets as a particular field of research as the response of ever growing social relevance of pets in contemporary societies. Though other theoretical approaches are suitable for tackling these complex issues, the article offers viewpoint from Luhmann's social systems theory. Based on Luhmann's writings on ecological communication, the article departs from the system/environment distinction and conceives pets as being part of a society's environment that attained resonance of a social system. Further, entry of pets into a social system is interpreted through differentiation theorem arguing that pets perform highly relevant social functions for all functional subsystems of a society by contributing to their autopoietic reproduction. This is primarily accomplished through communication about pets, emerging specific semantics, usage of binary codes specific for different subsystems, correspondence to their mediums, programs and functions. The major part of work is presenting relations of pets to 10 functional subsystems of a society, as this delineates scope of empirical phenomena of potential interest for sociology of pets. These processes might be observed at systemic, organizational and interaction levels. Despite possessing multiple merits, also, certain limits of Luhmann's account of pets are unfolded, such as incapability to hear authentic voices of animals, but rather distorted semantic codes emerging from consciousness of human psychic systems, afterwards structurally coupled with communication as a medium of social systems. At this point, social systems theory might be complemented by theory of interspecies communication, as taking into consideration other theoretical approaches anchored at ontologies pertinent to include non‐human agents is invocated. The tentative outcome of this introductory discussion is that apparent process of anthro‐morphosization of animals is taking place while the question of relation between humans–humans in the context of building just societies of the 21st century still remains open.

Transition in action: toward a social theory of the governance of transitions.

This article explores how a re-interpretation of the socio-technical, socio-ecological and transition design approaches to transition from the point of view of Niklas Luhmann's general systems theory of society. The need to understand and promote changes that include a technological and ecological dimension has led to different approaches, such as socio-technical or socio-environmental approaches, to incorporate links with society. While these approaches often include sociological insights, they rarely offer a general understanding of how these are embedded into society. We need a new environmental sociology that helps catalyze change processes with a collectively reorganized society, empowering more radically transformative actions to change the current structures and processes that have led us to where we are today. The article offers a cross-sectional look at the socio-ecological and socio-technical systems literature, specifically for what concerns their understanding of the 'systems' in transition and how they can be governed, and re-interpret it from the theoretical lens of the deep sociological knowledge, which refers to the profound understanding of social systems and their dynamics, embedded in Luhmann's theory of social systems. From here, we suggest the second-order coupling for a sociologically grounded understanding of the interactions that comprise socio-ecological and socio-technical systems, heterogeneous and almost self-organizing assemblies of social, technical, and natural elements and processes. At the same time, third-order couplings are analyzed, focused on governance, relationships between operations, and structures mediated by a deliberate attempt to ensure coherence and coordination against the autonomy and heterogeneity of socio-techno-ecological systems. Therefore, this manuscript offers a deeper conceptual and methodological understanding of socio-techno-ecological couplings and systems in the context of sustainability transformation and gives insights into its governance.

Communicating science addressing contentious environmental issues: utilizing Luhmann's social systems theory

For complex and socially contentious environmental issues, such as climate change and disease prevention, science communication has proven difficult. As many science communication scholars have determined, education is not the only factor impacting the public's willingness to act upon or even accept scientific information. In this study, we propose using Niklas Luhmann's theory of social systems as a framework for research in science and environmental communication. We argue that by focusing on the functions of relevant social systems, the occurrence of communication conflicts may be explained, and new approaches to overcome communication obstacles can be developed. In this study, we provide examples of the theory's utility by looking at pertinent studies regarding relevant systems integral to addressing climate change and sustainability issues, as well as propose new subjects for exploration.

Peranan Komunikasi Dalam Sistem Sosial : Analisis Teori Niklas Lukman

The theory of communication as autopoiesis proposed by Niklas Luhmann offers a revolutionary perspective in understanding communication in social systems. Luhmann argues that communication is not just a tool for exchanging information, but is an independent process and has autonomous mechanisms to maintain and reproduce itself. This theory combines the concept of autopoiesis which originally came from biology, where a system can produce and maintain its own components through internal interactions. In Luhmann's theory, communication is seen as a basic element of a social system that has the ability to create and reproduce social structures through processes communication itself. Luhmann emphasized that communication occurs through three main elements: information, message, and understanding. This process not only transmits information, but also shapes and constructs social reality. Communication in Luhmann's view is a selective process that involves selecting the information to be communicated, the way the information is conveyed, and how the information is understood by the recipient. Apart from that, the theory of communication as autopoiesis is relevant in the context of modern communication which is increasingly complex and fragmented. In the digital era, where information spreads rapidly and in large quantities, understanding communication as an autopoietic process helps us understand how information is processed, selected, and internalized in social systems. It also helps in understanding the challenges and opportunities that have arisen from developments in communication technologies, such as social media and the internet, which have changed the way we communicate and interact with each other. Overall, Niklas Luhmann's theory of communication as autopoiesis provides a powerful theoretical framework for understanding communication as an independent and dynamic process in social systems. This theory not only provides insight into how communication functions in a social context, but also offers analytical tools for exploring the complexity and dynamics of communication in modern society. By understanding communication through the lens of autopoiesis, we can better capture the essence of the communication process and how it shapes our social reality.

Where George Spencer-Brown went wrong – re-entry recalculated

PurposeThe paper uncovers a mathematical error in George Spencer-Brown's genesis of re-entry. It distinguishes between the two interpretations of re-entry presented in “Laws of Form”: recursive versus sequential. The Indeterminacy inferred by George Spencer-Brown from his recursive genesis of re-entry is refuted in three different ways. The calculation of the Modulator from “Laws of Form” demonstrates that only the sequential interpretation of re-entry is reasonable. This contributes to the demystification of re-entry and enables a deeper understanding. Finally, six differences between the concept of form from “Laws of Form” and Niklas Luhmann's sociological systems theory are presented.Design/methodology/approachMethodologically, the paper uses the ternary logic of discrete mathematics, which extends {0, 1} by “don't care” to {0, 1, -}. George Spencer-Brown's Indeterminicy is refuted by using three different methods: complete induction, Theorems 14 and 15 and the software XBOOLE. For the calculation of the Modulator, the only practical application of re-entry in “Laws of Form”, techniques from automata theory are used.FindingsThe paper reveals a mathematical error in George Spencer-Brown's genesis of the re-entry of “Laws of Form” and refutes the assumption of Indeterminicy. The analysis of the only practical application of re-entry presented by George Spencer-Brown shows that the functioning of this Modulator can only be described correctly with the sequential interpretation of re-entry.Originality/valueThe paper emphasizes the interdisciplinary potential of sociology and information technology and provides methods and tools of discrete mathematics for use in the analysis of the works of George Spencer-Brown and Niklas Luhmann.

Resonance of Climate Crisis News Discourse in Indonesian Online Media: Reflections on Niklas Luhmann's Ecological Communication Theory Perspective

Indonesia, an archipelago significantly vulnerable to the climate crisis, faces numerous natural disasters impacting various sectors. Despite the critical need for public awareness and proactive measures, media coverage of climate crisis issues in Indonesia remains limited. This study investigates the level of resonance in online media reporting on the climate crisis from January to December 2023, focusing on keywords related to climate change, forest fires, and air pollution. The research uses topic modeling and Niklas Luhmann's systems theory to examine how four major Indonesian online media outlets address climate crisis issues. The findings reveal that while kompas.com and detik.com show consistent coverage, ANTARA and CNBC Indonesia place less emphasis on these topics. The study highlights the need for enhanced and more impactful media coverage to raise public awareness and drive meaningful action against the climate crisis. The results underscore the importance of media collaboration with governments, NGOs, and communities to increase the resonance of climate crisis issues in public discourse. Future research should explore the reasons behind the variation in media coverage and its impact on public perception and policy decisions, including the role of social media platforms.

The reality of environment reimagined: Niklas Luhmann and the new ecological paradigm

AbstractThis article delves into the underpinnings of environmental sociology, with a specific focus on the influential contributions of Dunlap and Catton. While acknowledging the increasing societal detachment from the environment, the article questions the projection of this phenomenon onto the structure of social thought. The author contends against dismissing theoretical exemptionalism, advocating for its potential to provide a nuanced understanding of the complex relationship between society and nature. Illustrating this perspective through the lens of Niklas Luhmann's sociological theory, the article demonstrates how theoretical exemptionalism can furnish valuable tools for grappling with environmental issues. Furthermore, it challenges Dunlap and Catton's critique of constructivism, proposing that a moderate form of the latter can shed light on interactions between society and nature. Throughout the discussion, a crucial emphasis is placed on the fundamental distinction between society and its environment, laying the groundwork for a deeper exploration of Luhmann's ontology.

Politization of Islam in Modern Iran: Autopoiesis of Shiite Tradition?

The article examines the development of politicized Shiite Islam in Iran as a type of autopoiesis (N. Luhmann) of this religious tradition. The topic arises from the actualization of the influence of religion on the life of a number of societies that have relied on technological modernization, as well as the importance that the topic of the optimal combination of modernization and traditional values is acquiring today. The purpose of the study is, based on an analysis of the activities of the Shiite clergy, to characterize the uniqueness of the revaluation of the values of Iranian society in the course of the development of modern philosophy and ideology of Shiism. The objectives of the study were: 1) to systematize the existing scientific approaches to the process of politicization of Shiism in the second half of the 20th – early 21st centuries; 2) consider the connection between political processes and the specific theology of Shiism; 3) reveal the dynamics of the relationship between the values of tradition and modernization in the teachings of Shiite religious figures; 4) clarify the specificities of the stages of influence of Imami Islam on the religious and political life of modern Iran. The research was based on theological and scientific writings of Islamic spiritual leaders, their opponents and followers. The key method used was historical-genetic, which made it possible to analyze the formation of Shiism in Iran in the historical and cultural context; and comparative, with the help of which the specifics of the various stages of the autopoietic formation of Iranian Shiism against the background of other denominations of Shiism and Islam in general were clarified. It has been proven that consideration of the path of development of the philosophical and ideological aspects of Shiism theology from the perspective of N. Luhmann's theory makes it possible to trace not only the external, but also the autochthonous foundations of the complex reverses of this religious model of self-awareness of society; as well as identify and characterize the functional specificity and dynamic characteristics of the process of politicization of Shiism in Iran. In modern Iran, theology influences the consciousness of believers, and, as a consequence, social and political processes, and not vice versa, as is commonly believed in relation to modern societies. The role of Imami Islam (Shiites) in the formation of values and behavioral attitudes during the actual structuring of relations in society turns out to be key for Iran. At the same time, however, this theology contains the potential for historical change: the very theological system changes, starting from its own concepts and transforming them. This constructivist approach turns out to be compatible with the emphasis on traditionalism. The logical possibility of such collaboration in building a new type of society is justified within the framework of the development of the theory of legal guardianship.

Political and economic instrumentalisation of science: Towards an extended concept of corruption

AbstractPopular perception holds that science has been distorted by the pressure of expectations of economic utility or political desirability. Grounded in Niklas Luhmann's system theory, this paper examines the interplay of the political, economic and scientific subsystem of society to scrutinise the idea that science has been corrupted by economy and politics. To this end, we extend the notion of corruption beyond the common, predominantly legal meaning. As a result, we identify organisations as loci of corruptions that can occur at the interfaces of economy, politics and law as much as at the interfaces of science, education and economy or science, politics and health. We conclude that further conceptual and empirical research on these and similar cases of corruption is a worthy scientific goal.

The Impossibility and Necessity of Causality in Niklas Luhmann's Theory of Education

AbstractAccording to Niklas Luhmann, causality is both an impossibility and a necessity in education. On the one hand, the task of the teacher is an impossible one, because teaching as communication is a closed system that cannot determine the learning of pupils' psychical system in any causal sense. On the other hand, one cannot practice as a teacher without a belief in causality, i.e., in a causal connection between teaching and learning. In his article “The Child as the Medium of Education,” Luhmann focuses on the enablement of education, despite its impossibility. His answer is that one thing that makes education possible is the emergence of the symbolically generalized medium “the child.” In this article, Lars Qvortrup focuses on Luhmann's understanding of causality. According to Luhmann, causality is not a simple, ontological fact, but the result of the attribution of certain causes to certain effects. The conclusion is that causality as an attribution category — and not causality as an ontological fact — is another thing that makes education possible. Qvortrup also concludes, however, that Luhmann is not alone in criticizing the traditional, mechanical concept of causality. Other contemporary philosophers and sociologists have pointed out that in order to analyze causality in complex social systems, one has to select some causal factors and ignore others. While others do this based on seemingly pure scientific and statistical criteria, Luhmann focuses on attribution as a social construction of causality.

The Medium in the Sociology of Niklas Luhmann: From Children to Human Beings

AbstractIn this paper, Christian Morgner provides a critical reading of Niklas Luhmann's thinking as ignoring human beings or even as antihumanist. Here, he presents an alternative view that centers on Luhmann's idea of the child or human being as a medium. To explain Luhmann's use of these ideas to conceptualize the child and the consequences for research, Morgner refers to the translation of Luhmann's paper “The Child as the Medium of Education” and to as yet unpublished material from his famous card‐box reference system. Drawing on these materials, Morgner can more clearly illuminate Luhmann's novel perspective and how it could inform further theoretical development, supported by new analysis of existing research in other fields, including developmental psychology, education, philosophy, and sociology. He concludes that, far from neglecting the human, Luhmann's theory takes human being very seriously and acknowledges its key role as a form‐giving medium in addressing the challenges faced by contemporary society. This renewed perspective should be of particular interest to educational theorists, enabling them to more freely apply his ideas in various settings.

AUTOPOIESIS AND SACREDNESS IN THE DIGITAL SOCIETY: THE BIRTH OF THE METAVERSE

The Metaverse, as the apogee of Society 5.0, opens an iconic and transcendental horizon for exploring the capabilities of human innovation and synergy, giving the knowledge society a new, spiritually connected dimension. The article explores the emergence of the metaverse as an autopoietic entity within the contemporary risk society, arguing that digital transformation facilitates the convergence of separate social systems. In light of Luhmann's theories, the metaverse is examined as a solution to the latent risks of reflexive, late and liquid modernity. The analysis draws on the thought of Baudrillard, Durkheim and Marx, applying their concepts to assess the potential positive and negative repercussions of the metaverse. The article draws a parallel between the structure of magic - characterised by individualism - and that of religion - intrinsically communitarian - suggesting that the metaverse would benefit from following this communitarian model to sustain a collective spiritual dimension, in contrast to the hyperstimulating satisfaction of selfish desires. The conclusion invokes theologian Paul Evdokimov's vision of the limitations of cataphatic theology and the invigorating potential of apophatic theology that calls for the plenitude of the parousiac life, including in the context of interdisciplinary dialogue.

Neither individualism nor anti‐individualism: The coevolution of social systems and psychic systems

AbstractMajor paradigms in sociology and social sciences usually embrace either individualism or anti‐individualism as fundamental worldview. This paper explores a third way between individualism and anti‐individualism developed by German sociologist Niklas Luhmann in his systems theory. Luhmann treats actors or individuals as psychic systems and he distinguishes them from social systems. In a nutshell, social systems produce communication, whereas psychic systems produce consciousness. In line with anti‐individualism, Luhmann therefore argues that social systems are irreducible to psychic systems and their actions. On the other hand, Luhmann joins ranks with individualism to assert that psychic systems are not rigorously constrained by social systems. Ultimately, Luhmann explains that social systems and psychic systems are part of each other's environment and that each type of systems provides the ecological conditions that the other type depends on to emerge and grow. To discuss this third way between individualism and anti‐individualism, the paper examines more specifically two central points in Luhmann's theory: (1) how social systems and psychic systems are separated from each other, and (2) how social systems and psychic systems are coevolving.

The question of category: A reconceptualization through Luhmann's systems theory

AbstractAlthough the problem of category has traditionally been addressed by various scholars since Aristotle, Luhmann's epistemology has kept this matter in a suspended state, occasionally prioritizing some concepts (presumably categories) over others. However, for the sake of a consistent analysis of the semantics and societal self‐descriptions, it is better to have categorical constructs as focal points of systemic analysis manifested. Drawing upon resources of Luhmann's systems theory and Durkheim's sociology, this paper aims at elaborating the concept of category as an essential element of autopoietic analytical optics. It is shown that categories possess the following attributes: the highest degree of generalization and condensation, necessity, universality despite semantic variability, historicity and evolutionary characteristics. Amid a range of distinctions, system/environment, dis‐/similar, un‐/equal and distinction itself are considered to be categorical. These serve to carry out a primordial marking of ‘unmarked space’ and prepare the essential foundation for connectivity and other distinction generation.

Relational positionism: a constructive interpretation of morality in Luhmann's social systems theory

Purpose The purpose of this article is to summarize three Luhmannian critiques on morality, illustrate new roles for morality and add constructive interpretations.Design/methodology/approach Luhmann has recently been described as downright negative toward morality, resulting in a refusal to use ethics as a sociologist, thus leading to a limited use of his theory in moral issues. A constructive interpretation could support a more functional use of morality in social system theory.Findings First, Luhmann signals that morality can no longer fulfill its integrative function in society but also that society has recourse to moral sensitivity. Second, Luhmann describes how anxiety is crucial in modern morality and indicates which role risk and danger could play. The author builds further on this and proposes the concept of “social system attention” that can provide answers to individual and organizational anxiety. The author proposes that institutionalized socialization can support an integrative morality. Third, Luhmann states that ethics today is nothing more than a utopia but also that the interdiction of moral self-exemption is an essential element. The author adds that a relational ontology for social systems theory can avoid ethics as utopia.Practical implicationsThis article is a programmatic plea to further elaborate morality from a system theory perspective in which meaning is relationally positioned.Originality/value This article could potentially provide a more functional application of morality in social systems, thus leading to improvements of attempts of ethical decision-making. The originality of the approach lies in the interpretation of basic assumptions of Luhmann social system theory that are not core to his theory.

Trust, pandemic and communication: an analysis of the COVID-19 pandemic from an autopoietic systems perspective

PurposeThis article seeks to discuss trust within the context of public health crises using an autopoietic systems perspective that positions communication as one of its core concepts. This article will explore trust studies conducted during public health crises in this Millennium (from SARS to COVID-19 pandemics), including their problems; briefly summarize Luhmann's concept of Vertrauen; and use this concept to analyze trust issues during the COVID-19 pandemic.Design/methodology/approachThis article will explore trust studies conducted during public health crises from SARS to COVID-19 pandemics, including their problems. The perspective used is an explication of Niklas Luhmann's theory regarding Vertrauen which was derived as a framework for reading empirical facts on trust issues during the COVID-19 pandemic. The research design and exploration stages were inspired by the theory of autopoiesis systems by Niklas Luhmann.FindingsFrom a systems perspective, the COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted the extraordinary complexity of the linkages between social systems. Trust will continue to evolve dynamically as new variants emerge in society. Consequently, the pandemic has provided the momentum necessary for maximally exploring the concept of trust. Indonesia thus experienced significant obstacles when making and implementing disaster mitigation policies. Owing to the lack of a trust system, greater emphasis was given to control and power. There has been little preparedness to create and reinforce public trust, and this in turn has stifled efforts to stop the spread of COVID-19.Originality/valueThis study of trust, communication and public health crises has provided space to reflect on the development of trust within the social system. This study shows that trust can prove to be a very important factor in resolving a crisis. However, the complexity of the interrelationships of the social system can affect the quality of trust. The context of Indonesia's social system which is very complex due to population density and the dynamics of the development of its social system which is very diverse as an archipelagic country has contributed to the originality of the study of trust in times of crisis in a growing contemporary society.

The dynamics of social systems in Amazonian communities from the perspective of functional differentiation by Niklas Luhmann

Amazonian communities residing in Conservation Units have unique characteristics, such as the development of agroextractive activities within the Amazonian megabiome to be protected. This condition is the reason for proposing the identification of alternative choices related to local development by Amazonian communities in the face of internal complexities from the perspective of Niklas Luhmann's theory of system-environment differentiation (1977) permeating Duek's concepts of structural change; Brodjonegoro; Russian (2010). The use of Design Thinking tools, which allowed to organize, detail the discussion and elaborate the visual representation of the information, is added to the study proposal of a qualitative, exploratory and descriptive nature. As a result, it was possible to visualize the choices and restrictions that communities face, in addition to their exchange systems, supported by local decisions and partnerships, which are not always based on prices, and this implies the emergence of other normative qualification systems that attribute value that which can bring the most advantage to local survival and sustainable development.

More Education of Juvenile Offenders In Sentences Of Imprisonment: A Reform And Justification Approach As A Consequence Of Niklas Luhmann's Systems Theory

Background: In order to meet the demands of contemporary society, German juvenile criminal law needs a necessary reform. Consequently, this article proposes the reintroduction of indeterminate sentencing as an instrument for an overall social benefit to this need for reform and to counter the existing determinate sentencing system in place today. This specific sentencing system is understood to be the current guideline and norm currently implemented. According to Luhmann's systems theory, this contradicts the diversity of societies and the unique individuality of each member within them. In this perspective, individuals have the right to assert their rights and define their norms as long as they do not break the law or commit a criminal offence. Methods: The discussion surrounding indeterminate sentencing reached its conclusion in the late 1990s, so a lack of scientific research exists. However, considering the societal transformation and development of the younger generation, the reintroduction of indeterminate sentencing seems opportune. Niklas Luhmann’s flexible systems theory from the 1980 s is well suited to support this reintroduction. Based on a relevant literature review and the development of tightening in German juvenile law, this article adopts an analytical approach supported by social, legal and political research. It provides a framework elucidating the reasons and the appropriate form for reintroduc ing indeterminate sentencing as a useful method to increase resocialis ation among the youth . This framework includes practical approaches such as combining education, professional training and social education, all aimed at implementing a rehabilitative approach within the juvenile justice system, similar to the original law that was abandoned. Results and Conclusions: If this occurs, the indeterminate sentence allows for a more individualised approach, establishing an individual-oriented minimum sentence while maintaining a maximum duration. Thus, it aligns with Luhmann's flexible systems theory approach and proves relevant to the current circumstances of the youth generation. Such an approach offers greater benefits by emphasising the integration of education within the prison sentence for resocialisation, surpassing the capabilities of the current determinate sentencing in juvenile criminal law. The actual recidivism rates average between 25% and 30% depending on the sentence. With an education-focused approach adjusted to the juvenile offender , coupled with a realistic future- oriented education system in and after the sentence, the process of resocialis ation stands a better chance of success . Although the research on this topic is in its early stages, this approach serves as an initial step towards instigating the necessary reform within juvenile law.