Lowland Woods Research Articles

Natural color performance from nine species origins of lowland wood wastes

In the past, natural pigments derived from plant-biomass wastes had been widely used for coloring purposes (e.g. fabrics/batik), before finally getting pushed aside by the imported synthetic/inorganic pigments. Thorough attempts to revive the use of such natural pigments then deserve carrying out. Relevantly, conducting storage of liquid/wet or dry natural coloring pigments, extracted from wood wastes; and use of fixatives for batik fabrics intended to impart fabric-color variations. Wood wastes (i.e. leaves and barks) were obtained from nine plant species (Acacia mangium Willd, Avicenia marina L, Caesalpinia sappan L, Ceriop tagal Perr. CB. Rob, Pelthophorum ferruginum Benth, Rhyzophora mucronata Lamk, Tectona grandis Linn.f., Terminalia catappa L and Xylocarpus granatum KD Koenig.), prevalently growing on plain/lowland areas; and their wood portions commonly utilized by wood industries, which generate similar wastes enormously. The pigments in liquid/wet and then in dry forms were produced from those wastes. The production process of pigments adopted traditions by local batik crafters in Bogor. Variations occurring in fabric colors could be due to fixatives, i.e. lime (CaCO3), ferrous sulphate/tunjung (FeSO4); and various wastes. Six-month storage insignificantly changed the coloring qualities of natural coloring pigments applied to fabrics, compared to those of corresponding initially produced pigments. Leaf wastes always contained green-colored compounds, while bark wastes appeared aptly brownish in color. Color performances of bark extracts at fabrics with ferro-sulfat fixative brought about strong grey colors, and with lime fixative produced brown colors. Coloring of fabrics using leaf waste extracts with ferro-sulfat fixative aptly exhibited greenish grey; while with lime fixative became reddish brown. Testing results on the leaching resistance of pigment-colored and fixative-treated fabrics against rubbing and exposure to sunlight revealed a very good category (4-5), but against detergent, washing was very low (2-3).

Decoupled richness of generalist anaerobes and sulphate‐reducing bacteria is driven by pH across land uses in temperate soils

AbstractSulphate‐reducing bacteria (SRB) represent a key biological component of the global sulphur (S) cycle and are common in soils, where they reduce SO42− to H2S during the anaerobic degradation of soil organic matter. The factors that regulate their distribution in soil, however, remain poorly understood. We sought to determine the ecological patterns of SRB richness within a nationwide 16S metabarcoding dataset. Across 436 sites belonging to seven contrasting temperate land uses (e.g., arable, grasslands, woodlands, heathland and bog), SRB richness was relatively low across land uses but greatest in grasslands and lowest in woodlands and peat‐rich soils. There was a shift in dominant SRB taxa from Desulfosporosinus and Desulfobulbus in arable and grassland land uses to Desulfobacca in heathland and bog sites. In contrast, richness of other generalist anaerobic bacterial taxa found in our dataset (e.g., Clostridium, Geobacter and Pelobacter) followed a known trend of declining richness linked to land‐use productivity. Overall, the richness of SRBs and anaerobes had strong positive correlations with pH and sulphate concentration and strong negative relationships with elevation, soil organic matter, total carbon and carbon‐to‐nitrogen ratio. It is likely that these results reflect the driving influence of pH and competition for optimal electron acceptors with generalist anaerobic bacteria on SRB richness.Highlights Sulphate‐reducing bacteria (SRB) are key but rare soil biota that may compete with other anaerobes As UK sulphur deposition rates fall, local populations of SRB may also decline in soils Sulphate concentrations were higher in arable and wooded sites, not at higher elevation as expected SRB richness was lower than generalist anaerobes, with peaks in grasslands and a drop in lowland woods.

Hudson Bay was not deglaciated during MIS-3

The debate over the dimensions of the Laurentide Ice Sheet during the Middle Wisconsinan has been reinvigorated recently by a claim that Hudson Bay was deglaciated sometime between 57 and 29 ka, based on 735 published dates purported to support a dramatic reduction of the ice sheet. We review the evidence and conclude that an ice-free Hudson Bay in the proposed time window is inconsistent with major plumes of sediment-laden icebergs and meltwater (i.e. Heinrich events) derived from a Hudson Strait ice stream that deposited clastic layers on the sea floor from NE North America to the coast of Europe. We also show that almost all of the 735 published dates are either irrelevant to the claim of an ice-free Hudson Bay, or are mis-interpreted. A careful evaluation of the ∼40 14C ages on Hudson Bay Lowland wood, the most reliable medium for 14C dating sites >∼35 ka, suggests that only two of these dates can be plausibly considered to be finite ages, while the rest of those 14C ages can only be taken at best as minimum limiting ages. Collectively, the sum of the stratigraphic and geochronologic data from the Hudson Bay Lowlands indicate that Hudson Bay was likely deglaciated during Marine Isotope Stage 5a, consistent with Late Quaternary sea-level records, high Northern Hemisphere summer insolation and relatively high atmospheric CO2. But coupled with the nature of Heinrich events we conclude that Hudson Bay remained under a thick Laurentide Ice Sheet throughout MIS-3.

Coppicing and plant diversity in a lowland wood remnant in North–East Italy

In European lowlands, remnants of natural forests are rare, small, fragmented and often endangered. Most of the recent EU environmental policies have included such habitats in protected areas. However, nature conservation measures may conflict with traditional forest management, such as coppicing. We used a space-for-time approach to assess the effect of two contrasting silvicultural practices (coppicing vs. conversion to high forest) on composition and structure of plant community. Plant diversity was calculated as overall and single vegetation layer value. Functional diversity was evaluated in terms of functional richness, evenness and divergence. Our findings showed that coppice age has a strong effect on taxonomical and functional diversities, which generally decreased from young to mature stands. Species composition was significantly changed with coppice age and after the conversion to high forest, showing that traditional coppicing may contribute to sustaining habitat heterogeneity and key taxa for nature conservation. The abandonment of coppicing in the area might lead to a general landscape and habitat simplification, a weakening of the system functions and the loss of crucial species.

INVESTIGATION OF ANTIOXIDANT ACTIVITY OF PEAT LIPIDS AND SAPROPELS FROM WESTERN SIBERIA

The antioxidant activity of lipids extracted from peats and sapropels from Tomsk and Novosibirsk Regions and Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug is estimated by microcalorimetry. The presence of antioxidants (AO) in the lipids of all peats under study and in a sapropel from the Dolgoye Lake is confirmed by the presence of an induction period (950–14000 s) on the heat release curve and the decrease in the final rate of the model reaction of the initiated cumene oxidation by 25–90%. The total amount of lipid antioxidants varying within the range (22–183)∙10-3 mol/kg is determined by the degree of inhibition of the oxidation reaction. The concentration of identified organic compounds (25–186 μg/g) including alkanes, fatty acids, steroids, terpenoids, and tocopherols is determined by chromatography-mass spectrometry, which correlates with the amount of AO in the peat. It is shown that the samples of initial peats are ordered by their antioxidant activity as follows: sphagnum fuscum > cotton grass > lowland wood > sphagnum phallax. Sphagnum fuscum peats are characterized by the maximum biological activity, which makes it possible to recommend them as an optimal raw material for practical use.

Updates on the bryophyte flora of the lowland woods and temporary ponds west of Lake Trasimeno (Central Italy)

Updates on the bryophyte flora of the lowland woods and temporary ponds west of Lake Trasimeno (Central Italy)

Comparison of the Effect of Early and Late Removal of Second-Year Garlic Mustard (Alliaria petiolata) on First-Year Plants and Deciduous Forest Spring and Summer Dominant Herbaceous Groundlayer Species in Central Illinois, USA

Garlic mustard, a biennial Eurasian species, has extensively invaded eastern North American deciduous forests. We studied effects of 3 years (2005–2007) of annual removal of second-year garlic mustard plants on first-year plants and native spring herbaceous species in upland and lowland woods. Treatments compared removal of second-year plants in mid-March (early treatment) or mid-May (late treatment) to a control. We recorded first- and second-year plants and native herbaceous species percent cover on April 19 and 20. First-year plant cover was higher on control than treatment plots; however, in the upland woods only control and late treatment plots differed significantly. First-year plant cover was less in removal than control plots, indicating reduced seed input; however, we found no difference in cover of second-year plants between late treatment and control plots. Results suggest second-year plants strongly compete with younger conspecifics, and their removal decreases first-year plant mortality. Removal of second-year garlic mustard did not significantly affect total cover of native herbaceous species. Second-year plants complete vegetative growth before late May and might impact early developing native species more than later growing species. We tested effect of removal of garlic mustard on native species in 2 phenological categories: spring- and summer-dominant species. We found no treatment effects on summer-dominant species. However, early treatment plots had significantly more cover of spring-dominant plants than late treatment and control in the upland woods. Indicator Species Analysis indicated a majority of spring (75%) and summer (50%) dominant species maximized performance in the early treatment.

Does closure of traditionally managed open woodlands threaten epigeic invertebrates? Effects of coppicing and high deer densities

The demise of traditional woodland management techniques, such as coppicing or woodland pasture, is causing a gradual closure of formerly sparse lowland woods across Central Europe. It is established that these processes threaten such organisms as butterflies and higher plants. Effects on other groups, such as epigeic invertebrates, are little known, hindering rational conservation decisions. We investigated the effects of stand openness on three epigeic groups, carabids (Carabidae), arachnids (Araneae+Opiliones) and myriapods-isopods (Chilopoda+Diplopoda+Oniscidea), in a lowland deciduous wood in the Czech Republic. Situating some of the traps in an intensive deer park allowed a simultaneous assessment of effects of high vs. low ungulate densities. Carabids reached the highest species richness in either sparse stands with low game or dense stands, high game. More arachnids occurred under low game and in sparse stands than under high game density and in dense stands. The highest richness of myriapods-isopods was in sparse stands with low game. Ordinations revealed that species of conservation concern (‘relic species’ according to C. European authors) tended to be associated with sparse stands and low game. A considerable proportion of epigeic woodland invertebrates, including many species of conservation concern, depends on preserving highly heterogeneous sparse canopy conditions. Restoring such conditions in selected areas will benefit these sensitive open woodland specialists while causing minimum harm to specialists of dense stands, that likely prosper in commercially managed high forests.

Ecological impacts of increasing numbers of deer in British woodland

In recent decades, serious impacts on woodland regeneration have become widespread in Britain as a consequence of increasing numbers of deer. Concern has also been growing about possible effects of deer on the wider ecology of woodland. In April 2000, the Forest Ecology Group of the British Ecological Society held a meeting on 'Ecological Impacts of Deer in Lowland Woods'. This paper summarizes the main issues that emerged from papers presented at that meeting, several of which are published in this special issue of Forestry. The probable causes of the increases in deer populations and the problems posed for deer management are briefly considered. There are convincing reasons to believe that for a wide range of taxa, abundances of particular species and overall community composition can be strongly modified by increasing numbers of deer. Such ecological changes are probably well advanced in many British woods as a result of recent intensified grazing. The general effect of sustained heavy grazing and browsing is a reduction in the richness of biological communities. There are, however, considerable differences among species in their responses and heavy grazing is not detrimental to all species. Responses of many species will be non-linear, with intermediate levels of deer pressure being beneficial in many cases. Ecologists have an important role to play in gaining a better understanding of these effects; this is essential if informed decisions are to be made about deer management at both local and regional levels. However, such research presents many methodological challenges.

The Ecology of Woodland Creation.

To What Extent Can We Recreate Woodland? (J. Spencer). Planning and Designing New Woodlands for People (M. Sangster). New Woodlands in the Landscape (S. Bell). Biogeography and Woodland Design (I. Spellerberg). Vegetation Classification Systems as an Aid to Woodland Creation (J. Rodwell G. Patterson). Soils and Restoration Ecology (A. Moffat G. Buckley). Soil Biotic Communities and New Woodland (J. Harris T. Hill). Creating Woodlands: To Plant Trees or Not? (R. Harmer G. Kerr). Introduction of Plants and Manipulation of Field Layer Vegetation (J. Packham, et al.). Invertebrate Conservation and New Woodland in Britain (R. Key). Bird Populations in New Lowland Woods: Landscape, Design and Management Perspectives (R. Fuller, et al.). Population Dynamics of Small Mammals in New Woodlands (J. Flowerdew R. Trout). Do Woodland Mammals Threaten the Development of New Woods? (R. Gill, et al.). Ecological Planning in New Woodlands (R. Ferris-Kaan). Indexes.

The effects of shade on the plant communities of rides in plantation woodland and implications for butterfly conservation

During 1985–6 the vegetation in the rides (forest tracks) of eight English lowland woods, planted on ancient woodland sites was surveyed. Shade was measured in each transect by hemispherical photography. Dicotyledonous species richness and the majority of dicot plant species declined as shade increased. The results for individual species compare favourably with Ellenberg's (L) value in most cases, and a method is suggested for modifying Ellenberg's data in the light of new information. The woodlands contained species of both open and shaded habitats and communities were influenced by soil acidity. Because shade in woodland rides increases as the trees mature, theory states that there will almost certainly be a reduction in plant species diversity. Butterfly populations would also be adversely affected, partly because of the reduction in direct sunlight, and partly because their larval foodplants decline in both quantity and quality since they are generally associated with low to moderate shade.

The response of heteroptera and coleoptera species to shade and aspect in rides of coniferised lowland woods in Southern England

The relationship between shade and aspect and the species richness and abundance of Heteroptera and Coleoptera (Chrysomelidae and Curculionoidea) was examined in the rides of coniferised ancient woodlands. A total of 83 species of Heteroptera, and 31 and 58 species of Chrysomelidae and Curculionoidea respectively, were identified from samples taken from nine woodland sites in southern England. Shade, both direct and indirect, was measured by hemispherical photography. Regression models for each insect group related species richness and abundance to shade and inherent wood differences. Indirect shade was at least as good a predictor as direct shade. Both species richness and abundance declined with increasing levels of shade. Shrub-associated Heteroptera appeared in general to be more shade-tolerant than herb-associated species. The opposite was true for the Coleoptera, but numbers were generally small. Some significant relationships with aspect were found with several species showing an apparent preference for south-facing aspects. The results of this study support the conclusion from studies on butterflies, namely that rides must be actively managed to keep light levels high if species richness and abundance are to be maintained.

The influence of shade on butterflies in rides of coniferised lowland woods in Southern England and implications for conservation management

The effects of shade on butterflies in rides and other open areas was examined in seven ancient woodlands that had been planted with conifers. Thirty-nine species of butterfly were recorded. Shade both direct and indirect was measured by hemispherical photography. A regression model related butterfly species-richness and abundance to shade, ride length and inherent wood differences, and in all case indirect shade was a better predictor than direct shade. There were no significant wood × shade interactions so inferred individual species preferences may have general application. These preferences can be used, in conjunction with models of the relationship between tree height and ride width, to predict the effects of increasing shade during the crop rotation on butterfly populations, and management requirements to maintain these populations.

Unter welchen Bedingungen haben Blätter sogenannte „Träufelspitzen”? )

Many woody and herbaceous plant species in different families have leaves with so-called “drip tips” (German: “Träufelspitzen” Fig. 1). These are most frequently found in the humid parts of the warmer zones (Fig. 2) but even here not at all everywhere. Since nearly 100 years the prominent tips often were supposed to promote the transpiration of the leaves and to prevent the growth of epiphyllic algae, lichens and mosses by draining off the water from the surface. However field observations as well as experiments with leaves or leaf models gave rise to doubts into the teleologic interpretation. Morphologically the tip can be a “forerunner tip” (Vorläuferspitze) i. e. a special organ developing before the lamina. Rarely it may be an “after-running tip” (Nachläuferspitze) which continues to grow after the lamina has reached its definite shape. But in most cases leaves that are not included in a well protected bud simply begin their development with the tip which therefore is exposed to the atmospheric conditions days (or weeks) before the rest of the leaf stretches and broadens. This process ends up with a curved transition of the leaf edge into the tip. As it is often difficult to distinguish between these three cases the author proposes the neutral and unencumbered term “salient tip” (Vorspitze, in Latin apicula). In the tropical forest and woodland formations of Peru for example leaves with salient tips are more or less frequent depending on the altitudinal and humidity gradient (Fig. 3). This is illustrated in detail by “leaf form diagrams” showing the average shape of the leaves of all plant species (except for the rare ones) within a 10 × 10 m plot. Species covering less than 5% of the plot surface are represented with a simple drawing. For species covering 5–25 % the right contour is doubled etc. (25–50% = 3 × 50–75% = 4 × more than 75% = 5×). Evergreen hard leaves are hatched closely, softer ones more widely. Rain-green leaves are dotted (or marked with dotted lines when only abundant in wet years) and summer-green leaves (of cold-deciduous species) left without signature. The leaves are drawn to scale and the salient tip is marked with a thick dot for clarity. The species have been grouped according to the highest layer in which they occur (Ü = very tall trees, B1 and B2 = tree layers, L = lianas, S = shrub layer, K = herb layer; the moss layer and epiphytes are not depicted). Fig. 4 corresponds to a normal tropical lowland rain forest, Fig. 5 to a flood plain forest under similar conditions and Fig. 6 to a montane cloud forest on an eastern slope of the Andes which is extremely humid all over the year but much colder than the preceding examples. Fig. 7 represents an upper montane woodland in the semi-humid climate of the Andean “altiplano” which reminds a mediterranean hard-leaved wood. Fig. 8 corresponds to a cloud forest of the western Andes climatically intermediate between Figs. 6 and 7, Fig. 9 to a submontane mostly deciduous forest on the western Andean foothills, i.e. in a semi-humid warm climate. The lowland wood in Fig. 10 is situated west of the Andes in a semi-arid climate; but it was studied in an extraordinarily wet year (1957) during which soft-leaved annual (or geophytic) vines became overwhelming. Fig. 11 represents a “loma” woodland on the coastal mountains in southern Peru against which the fog is drifting during five winter months whereas rainfall is nearly lacking. For comparison Fig. 14 gives a leaf form diagram of a beech forest in Central Europe. Arranging these and other examples in relation to the average number of humid months and the mean air temperature Fig. 15 shows the percentage of species with salient leaf tips: These are concentrated in regions with more than 6 wet months and over 15 centigrades, i.e. in warm climates in which at least the vegetation period is rather long and humid. Under these conditions the woody plants do not need a strong bud protection and the freely developing leaves broaden quickly after having differenciated their tip. In a very rainy and foggy but cold climate where a “drip tip” would be most urgently needed (if this function were important!) most species have no such tips. When one and the same species is occurring in all altitudinal levels (Fig. 13) its leaves become smaller and the salient tip disappears with dropping warmth. The same phenomenon can be produced experimentally, the effect becoming even more striking when also the air humidity is lowered (Fig. 12).

Effects of DDT on Bird Population of Scrub Forest

A number of studies have been made by the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service to determine the effects of DDT on vertebrate life. The work has covered a variety of situations and several dosage rates have been used. As far as birds are concerned, the results have shown that DDT applied to forest areas at a rate of one pound per acre has but slight effect (Hotchkiss and Pough, 1946; Kendeigh, 1947). Repeated applications of small dosages of DDT (0.1 pound per acre) as practiced in malaria control, have been studied for effects on birds by Erickson (1947). He failed to find any measurable effects following 17 weekly applications. Following a twopound-per-acre treatment of a lowland woods, Stewart, et al. (1946) could find no conclusive evidence of mortality in a nesting population, but some changes in habits appeared to have resulted. An experimental treatment of a portion of dense second-growth hardwood forest with five pounds of DDT to the acre was found by Hotchkiss and Pough (1946) to cause a significant reduction in the bird populations. It is becoming increasingly apparent that control of forest insect pests by aerial dispersion of DDT will be practical under some conditions. In order that such control work can be done with a minimum adverse effect on beneficial animal life, the Forest Insect Division (Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine) and the Fish and Wildlife Service are continuing a program of cooperative studies. Effects of DDT at different dosage rates per acre are being determined for vertebrates and invertebrates in both aquatic and terrestrial habitats. A determination of the critical dosage level and conditions of application which create definite hazards to wildlife is urgently needed. The present study details the effects on a bird population of a five-pound-per-acre application where the nature of the cover was such that little screening out of the spray occurred. The absence of a canopy, and resultant deposition of a large percentage of the spray at ground level, also approximated conditions that might be met in comparable control attempts in some agricultural situations. The area chosen for the test is a 90acre tract located on the Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, two miles west of the Patuxent Research Refuge on the Coastal Plain of Maryland. The area was burned over in 1942 and is now covered with a scrub and sapling growth. Numerous dead pine and oak trees of the former forest are still standing. The commonest woody plants in the sprayed area, all in the form of saplings, sprouts, or shrubs, are sweet gum (Liquidambar styraciflua), red maple (Acer rubrum), black gum(Nyssa sylvatica), and dwarf sumac (Rhus copallina). Large-toothed aspen (Populus grandidentata), willow oak (Quercus phellos), white oak (Q. alba), tuliptree