Lowest Mean Rate Research Articles

The paraglacial adjustment of an Alpine lateral moraine, Bas Glacier d’Arolla, Switzerland

ABSTRACT Within Alpine catchments, glacial landforms are subject to post-depositional reworking during and following deglaciation. Ice-marginal moraines are thought to rapidly stabilise within ~200 years in this topographic context, although ice-proximal slopes are particularly prone to alteration by debris flows and solifluction. This study investigates landform transformation, documenting geomorphological change at the Bas Glacier d’Arolla, Switzerland. Gully development on a moraine slope was assessed using archive image sets obtained in 1977, 1988 and 2009 to derive historical elevation models. Raster differencing suggests that the mean rate of surface lowering on the upper moraine slope was 7.15 ± 1.83 m (± minimum level of detection) over the observation period (1977–2009), a rate of 0.22 m yr−1. The erosion of the landform resulted in an incontiguous moraine crestline. Whilst some landforms may undergo limited transformation upon deglaciation, selected sites are subject to rapid geomorphologic change, involving crestline retreat via the initial dissection by gullies, followed by the removal of inter-gully slopes.

Green Practices in The Hotel Industry: Proposed Implications to The Environmentally Appropriate Programs

This study explores the green practices of the hotel industries in one of the cities in Northern Mindanao, Philippines with the intention of utilizing the findings as basis for the implementation of a proposed environmentally appropriate programs. The study gave emphasis on the participant’s extent of awareness and participation towards green practices of the hospitality industry in the city in terms of green energy consumption, water and liquid waste management, air quality management, solid waste disposal management and noise control management. The participants consisted of 88 personnel from the different DOT accredited hotels in Cagayan de Oro City. Based on the findings, the participants are much aware on the extent of their awareness on the green practices on water and liquid waste, green energy consumption, air quality management, solid waste disposal and noise pollution control. Among the green practices variables, air quality management has the highest mean. The participants’ extent of participation on the green practices was rated great extent. Among the variables, water and liquid and waste management, air quality management, and solid waste disposal and management got the highest mean rating. While noise pollution control got the lowest mean rating. The test of relationship between the participants’ awareness and their extent of participation of the green practices in hospitality industry shows that awareness of the green practices is significantly associated with the extent of practice.
 
 KEYWORDS: Green practices, hotel industry

Ancillary Functions, Self-Efficacy, and Resilience among Elementary School Teachers

The study utilized the descriptive-correlational research design and used a questionnaire as the main instrument to gather the necessary data to answer the specific questions of the study. Stratified sampling was employed to determine the respondents of the study using the universal sampling. Mean and standard deviation were used to determine the extent of ancillary function, extent of self-efficacy, and the extent of resilience of the teachers. The study revealed the following significant findings: The teachers were almost always involved in ancillary functions with extra-curricular ancillary functions having the highest mean rating. They had a high extent of self-efficacy and resilience with interaction having the highest mean rating and problem-solving had the lowest mean rating. Moreover, coping self-efficacy and task self-efficacy were statistically correlated with the extent of resilience of the teachers. The higher is their self-efficacy the higher is their resiliency to adversities in their workplace. The extent of co-curricular and extra-curricular ancillary functions had no significant relationship to teachers resilience level.

Clinicians’ satisfaction with laboratory services and associated factors at public health facilities in Northeast Ethiopia

BackgroundSatisfaction has become a key measure of quality and an important tool for improvement. Laboratories are increasingly required to regularly assess satisfaction of their customers. This study aimed to assess clinicians’ satisfaction with laboratory services and associated factors at public health facilities.MethodsA facility-based cross-sectional study was conducted in Northeast Ethiopia from May to June 2019. Eight hospitals and 24 health centres were first selected using a stratified sampling method, and a total of 224 randomly selected clinicians were included. Satisfaction with multiple aspects of laboratory services was assessed using a self-administered questionnaire, on a rating scale of 1 (very dissatisfied) to 5 points (very satisfied). Laboratory quality assessment was performed using WHO-AFRO’s stepwise accreditation checklist. Multivariable logistic regression model was fitted to determine the association between independent variables and clinicians’ overall satisfaction level using STATA ver14.1. A p-value < 0.05 was considered significant.ResultsOverall, 72.8% of the clinicians were satisfied. Lowest mean ratings were obtained for the helpfulness of the laboratory handbook (3.3), provision of STAT/urgent services (3.7), and adequacy of tests provided (3.8). The clinicians’ timely receipt of results (AOR = 2.3, 95% CI = 1.1–5.0), notification of panic results (AOR = 2.5, 95% CI = 1.1–5.6), perceived quality/reliability of test results (AOR = 3.1, 95% CI = 1.5–6.3), and the laboratories’ rate of concordant malaria microscopy results (AOR = 4.1, 95% CI = 1.8–9.3), were significantly associated with satisfaction.ConclusionsNearly one-third of clinicians were not satisfied with the laboratory services. Laboratory managers should emphasize the timely communication of STAT/urgent and panic results, and the reliability of test results, to improve users’ satisfaction and overall quality of care.

Assessing Mathematics and Science Self-Efficacy Beliefs for Teaching

The study used a questionnaire survey to collect quantitative data from respondents. The independent variables of interest were level of math and science self-efficacy beliefs, as well as self-efficacy for teaching math and science. The questionnaire survey was voluntarily completed by 60 teachers, comprising 45 male and 15 female. The respondents ranged in age from 19 to 38 years. The findings of the study revealed that the mathematics and science teachers at the basic school had high level of self-efficacy beliefs. The study further discovered that though not strong, there is a positive relationship between math and science teachers’ self-efficacy and their ability to teach math and science. The findings also found that math and science teachers’ scores on the MSSEB scale for mathematics and science self-efficacy beliefs were generally higher than their scores on the SETMS scale for self-efficacy for teaching mathematics and science. The ability to effectively explain math /science concepts to students received the lowest mean rating in comparison to others. Teachers' self-efficacy beliefs and self-efficacy can be important considerations for teacher professional development training as a powerful intervening factor for teacher effectiveness and student performance outcomes.

Factors Affecting the Takers of the Qualifying Examinations as Part of the Accountancy Program Retention Policy: The Case of a University in Central Luzon Philippines

This research was carried out to assess the qualifying examinations being administered by a school’s department for a of university in Central Luzon, Philippines for the Incoming Second Year, Third Year and Fifth Year BS Accountancy Students. Using the physical and administrative factors are from Aiken et al. (2008), and the Psychological Testing and Assessment, and University of Waterloo’s Center for Excellence (2016), when Preparing Tests and Exams are the guidelines for qualitative factors of exams revealed that the quality of exams had the lowest mean rating compared to physical environment and administrative responsibilities as the factors when assessing the qualifying examinations. The participants were two hundred ninety four (294) students who took the qualifying examinations. The analysis of variance findings confirmed that there is a significant difference on the assessment of the qualifying exams if grouped according to incoming year level and status. The return of the two strike policy to replace the one strike policy, is the most preferred recommendation by the examinees followed by the special remediation program for deserving ‘late bloomer’ students and the special review classes in preparation of the examination.

Identifying advocacy strategies, challenges and opportunities for increasing domestic health policy and health systems research funding in Nigeria: Perspectives of researchers and policymakers

IntroductionPoor funding for Health Policy and Systems Research (HPSR) is a major constraint to the development, generation and uptake of HPSR evidence in Low and Middle-Income countries. The study assessed the status of HPSR domestic funding and advocacy strategies for improving HPSR funding in Nigeria. It equally explored the knowledge and perception of the domestic funding status of HPSR and the effect of capacity building on the knowledge of domestic funding for HPSR in Nigeria.MethodsThis was a sub-national study involving policymakers and researchers from Enugu and Ebonyi States in Southeast Nigeria who participated in the sub-national Health Systems Global convening for the African region. A before-after study design (workshop) was utilized. Data collection employed semi-structured questionnaires, group and panel discussions. The workshop facilitated knowledge of HPSR, funding processes, and advocacy strategies for increased domestic funding for HPSR. Pre and immediate post-workshop knowledge assessments were done. Data were analyzed using SPSS version 25 and thematic analysis.ResultsTwenty-six participants were involved in the study. Half were females (50.0%) and 46.2% were aged 35–44 years. Policymakers constituted 23.1% of the participants. Domestic funding for HPSR in Nigeria was adjudged to be grossly inadequate. Identified barriers to domestic funding of HPSR included bureaucratic bottlenecks, political and policy transitions, and corruption. Potential opportunities centered on existing policy documents and emerging private sector willingness to fund health research. Multi-stakeholder advocacy coalitions, continuous advocacy and researcher skill-building on advocacy with active private sector involvement were the strategies proffered by the participants. Pre-workshop, understanding of the meaning of HPSR had the highest mean ratings while knowledge of budgeting processes and use of legal action to enable opportunities for budget advocacy for HPSR funding had the lowest mean ratings. Following the capacity-building workshop, all knowledge and understanding parameters markedly improved (percentage increase of 12.5%–71.0%).ConclusionThis study found that there was paucity of domestic funding for HPSR in Nigeria alongside poor knowledge of budgeting and advocacy strategies among both policymakers and researchers. We recommend the deployment of these identified strategies and wider national and regional stakeholder engagement towards prioritizing and improving domestic funding for HPSR.

A structural equation modeling approach for the acceptance of driverless automated shuttles based on constructs from the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology and the Diffusion of Innovation Theory

The present study investigated the attitudes and acceptance of automated shuttles in public transport among 340 individuals physically experiencing the automated shuttle ‘Emily’ from Easymile in a mixed traffic environment on the semi-public EUREF (Europäisches Energieforum) campus in Berlin. Automated vehicle acceptance was modelled as a function of the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) constructs performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence, and facilitating conditions, the Diffusion of Innovation Theory (DIT) constructs compatibility and trialability, as well as trust and automated shuttle sharing. The results show that after adding the DIT constructs, automated shuttle sharing, and trust to the model, the effect of performance expectancy on behavioural intention was no longer significant. Instead, compatibility with current travel was the strongest predictor of behavioural intention to use automated shuttles. It was further found that individuals who are willing to share rides in an automated shuttle with fellow travelers (i.e., automated shuttle sharing) and who trust automated shuttles (i.e., trust) are more likely to intend to use automated shuttles (i.e., behavioural intention). The highest mean rating was obtained for believing that automated shuttles are easy to use, while the lowest mean rating was obtained for feeling safe inside the automated shuttle without any type of supervision. The analysis revealed a preference for the supervision of the automated shuttle via an external control room to the supervision by a human steward onboard. We recommend future research to investigate the hypothesis that compatibility could serve as an even stronger predictor of the behavioural intention to use automated shuttles in public transport than performance expectancy.

Rating Scale Data and its Utility: Additional Evidence to be Explored in the Medical Education Continuum

The purposes of this study are to assess the utility of self-appraisals and ratings of program directors (PDs) and to introduce new ways to use self-assessed and rating scale data. The data for this study was collected from graduates of our school who were enrolled in different residency programs around the country. The interns and PDs completed a similar set of questions. The correlation between the ratings of the two group was .21. The Cronbach’s alpha of interns and PD surveys were .89 and .97, respectively. The interns consistently rated themselves lower compared to ratings the PDs assigned them. The two groups agreed on the areas of strengths and weaknesses based on their mean ratings and rank-ordering of competencies. This study proposes that lowest mean ratings of measures that appear at the bottom in the rank-ordering be considered as areas that deserve special attention. The results of this study brought validity evidence to the utility of self-appraisals and PD’s ratings of interns.&#x0D;

Older adult psychopathology: international comparisons of self-reports, collateral reports, and cross-informant agreement.

To conduct international comparisons of self-reports, collateral reports, and cross-informant agreement regarding older adult psychopathology. We compared self-ratings of problems (e.g. I cry a lot) and personal strengths (e.g. I like to help others) for 10,686 adults aged 60-102 years from 19 societies and collateral ratings for 7,065 of these adults from 12 societies. Data were obtained via the Older Adult Self-Report (OASR) and the Older Adult Behavior Checklist (OABCL; Achenbach et al., ). Cronbach's alphas were .76 (OASR) and .80 (OABCL) averaged across societies. Across societies, 27 of the 30 problem items with the highest mean ratings and 28 of the 30 items with the lowest mean ratings were the same on the OASR and the OABCL. Q correlations between the means of the 0-1-2 ratings for the 113 problem items averaged across all pairs of societies yielded means of .77 (OASR) and .78 (OABCL). For the OASR and OABCL, respectively, analyses of variance (ANOVAs) yielded effect sizes (ESs) for society of 15% and 18% for Total Problems and 42% and 31% for Personal Strengths, respectively. For 5,584 cross-informant dyads in 12 societies, cross-informant correlations averaged across societies were .68 for Total Problems and .58 for Personal Strengths. Mixed-model ANOVAs yielded large effects for society on both Total Problems (ES = 17%) and Personal Strengths (ES = 36%). The OASR and OABCL are efficient, low-cost, easily administered mental health assessments that can be used internationally to screen for many problems and strengths.

Occupational Performance Outcome for Survivors of Childhood Cancer: Feasibility of the Canadian Occupational Performance Measure

The aim of the study was to determine the feasibility of the Persian version of the Canadian Occupational Performance Measure (COPM) to assess self-reported occupational performance in a group of children with cancer at least one-year post-cancer diagnosis and intervention and to describe the self-reported occupational performance problems of children with cancer. Forty-three children with cancer (mean age 11.59 years; SD 4.94) participated in a cross-sectional study, using a convenience sampling approach. Performance and satisfaction were assessed through a validated Persian version of the COPM and feasibility and ease of administration were also considered. This study showed that feasibility was found to be adequate and this measurement was perceived as easy to understand; completion took from 20 to 51 minutes. Children with cancer prioritized 115 occupations within six of the nine COPM subcategories. Among the prioritized occupations, the highest number was found in self-care 61.7%, followed by productivity (26%), and leisure (12.1%). The mean ratings of performance varied from 3.7 to 8.4. The lowest mean rating was in the subgroup play/school (3.7). For satisfaction, the mean ratings were from 2.6 to 5.2, with functional mobility as the highest and play/school the lowest. The results support the use of the COPM in clinical practice for children with cancer. Based on these findings, children with cancer perceive problems with occupations related to all aspects of daily life. This underlines the need to provide rehabilitation services, especially occupational therapy services for these children.

Pedagogical Function of Referees in Youth Sport: Assessment of the Quality of Referee-Player Interactions in Youth Soccer.

We assume that all institutions and individuals involved in the organization of sport for children and young people should utilize the educational potential of sport. We assessed the quality of referee interactions with children during sports competitions in soccer. Based on the developmental theory and research suggesting that interactions between kids and adults are the primary mechanism of their development and learning, we focused on the quality of the referee–player interactions in terms of (1) emotional support, (2) game organization, and (3) instructional support. Twenty-five soccer referees who refereed matches for children aged 9–12 years were recruited. The Referee Educational Function Assessment Scoring System (REFASS) was used to assess the quality of the referee–player interactions. This tool was developed based on Classroom Assessment Scoring System—Upper Elementary. Regarding the REFASS dimensions, the mean scores for positive climate, Sensitivity, behavior management, content understanding and quality of feedback were in the medium range, while productivity and negative climate in the high range. In the case of the positive climate variable, the lowest mean ratings were recorded compared to other assessed dimensions. The assessments of the quality of referee–player interactions obtained for particular dimensions translated into the ratings for the specified domains. The highest ratings were given to game organization (6.0 ± 0.8; Me = 6.0), whereas the emotional support and instructional support were in the medium range (4.6 ± 1.5; Me = 4.5, and 5.2 ± 1.8; Me = 6.0, respectively). Referees are usually not aware of their pedagogical function and the complexity of their respective responsibilities. They are commonly considered to be ordinary technicians and evaluators of performance in competition. Based on the results, a postulate was formulated that referees should consciously perform a pedagogical function in the youth sport. Therefore, it is necessary to train them in educational methods and techniques appropriate to the age and needs of the child. The referees will then be prepared to take actions to prevent negative behavior of players on the field and to encourage prosocial behavior.

Algorithms can Mimic Human Piano Performance: The Deep Blues of Music

Can a computer play a music score, e.g. via a Disklavier, in a way that cannot be distinguished from a human performance of the same music? One hundred and seventy-two participants with a wide range of music playing backgrounds rated sound recordings of 7 performances of piano music by Kuhlau, one played by a human, and six generated by algorithms, including a ‘mechanical’ and an ‘unmusical’ rendering. Participants rated the extent to which each performance was by a human and explained their answers. The mechanical performance had the lowest mean rating, but the human performance was rated as statistically identical to the other stimuli. There were no differences between ratings made by classical piano experts and lay listeners, but despite this, the musicians were more confident with their ratings. Qualitative analysis revealed five broad themes that contribute to judging whether a piece appears to be human. The themes were labelled (in descending order of frequency) intuitive, expressive, imperfections, halo (global preference) and empathy. This paper presents new evidence systematically demonstrating that algorithm generated performances of piano music can be indistinguishable from human performances, suggesting some parallels with the 1990s victory of the Deep Blue computer of the world champion (human) chess player.

Spiritual Versus Religious Identity: A Necessary Distinction in Understanding Clinicians’ Behavior and Attitudes Toward Clinical Practice and Medical Student Teaching in This Realm

Social sciences view spirituality and religion separately; medicine views them together. We identified distinctions regarding clinical practice and teaching among clinician educators based on their self-identified spirituality versus religiosity. We emailed a 24-item survey on spiritual/religious (S/R) issues to clinician educators (n = 1067) at our institution. Three summary scales were created. Responses to statements, 'I consider myself to be spiritual' and 'I consider myself to be religious' generated four comparison groups: 'spiritual only,' 'religious only,' 'both spiritual and religious' and 'neither.' Analyses employed ANOVA and T tests. A total of 633 (59%) surveys were completed. Four percentage self-identified as 'religious only'; remaining respondents divided evenly, about 30% into each of the other categories. Groups differed from one another on all summary scales (p < .0001). Using T tests, the 'spiritual only' group differed from the 'religious only' group regarding teaching. The 'spiritual and religious' group had the highest mean ratings for all summary scales. The 'neither' and 'religious only' group had the lowest mean ratings. Clinicians' spiritual versus religious identity is associated with differences in behavior/attitudes regarding S/R toward clinical practice and medical student teaching. These findings elucidate opportunities for faculty development to explore effects of beliefs on behavior and attitudes within this realm.

Graduate Student Perceptions of the Use of Online Course Tools to Support Engagement

Graduate students in six online courses were asked to complete a questionnaire related to dimensions of engagement including participation and interaction, performance, studying, and relevance of material. Students were asked to indicate the importance of various online course features (e.g., online discussions) in enhancing their engagement in each dimension using a Likert scale. Twenty-six (29%) students completed the questionnaire. Students rated most course management system features as extremely important or very important. When the ratings for the four engagement areas were grouped by course site feature, the feature with the highest mean rating was “instructor feedback on assignments/assessments.” The feature with the lowest mean rating was “online chats with other students.” While the practices of the instructor in the courses studied may have influenced the students’ perceptions, it is clear that students especially value contact with the instructor.

Tolerance Levels of Peanut Varieties against Aspergillus flavus Infection

Peanuts (Arachis hypogaea L.) are usually infected by Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus during pre and post-harvest periods subsequently resulting in aflatoxin contamination. Thirteen peanut varieties were evaluated for kernel and pod colonization and infection by A. flavus in this study. The pods and kernels were examined under a microscope for A. flavus infection levels. Differences in mean ratings of infected peanut kernels and pods were observed after 10 days of artificial inoculation and incubation. More differences were observed among the mean ratings of peanut kernels and pods with invisible mycelial surface coverage. However, these mean differences were not statistically significant P ≥ 5. Peanut varieties with the biggest mean ratings of kernels and pods with invisible mycelia or no visible sign of infection and smallest mean ratings of infected pods and kernels could be considered tolerant to A. flavus colonization and infection in this study. Therefore, there is a need to promote the cultivation of these varieties by farmers as they have low levels of infection and subsequently low level of aflatoxin contamination. The peanut varieties with the lowest mean ratings of kernels and pods with invisible mycelia which are considered to have good attributes warrant improvement through selection and breeding. This is because most farmers in Uganda store their peanuts in pod form which offers some protection against infection. In addition, peanut varieties with biggest mean ratings of kernels with invisible mycelia need to be promoted among traders since they are considered to have lower levels of A. flavus infection.

What is the value of global health electives during medical school?

Purpose: To determine whether global health (GH) electives enhanced the development of medical students and to examine the influence on host communities.Methods: A retrospective survey study was conducted with Queen's University undergraduate medical students who had participated in a GH elective. Participants rated the influence of their elective on the aspects of their professional and personal development and their perceived community impact on a scale of 0–5.Results: The highest rated statements focused on the students’ personal development and whether the elective provided a valuable learning experience (4.39 and 4.07, respectively). Students also reported a heightened level of awareness of social determinants of health (mean rating of 3.98). The statements with the lowest mean ratings involved students’ perceptions of their impact on the communities. Overall, 73.5% of participants agreed or strongly agreed that GH electives are valuable to medical education.Conclusion: GH electives benefit the professional and personal development of medical students. Although students gain significantly from their experience, they are unable to assess the impact of their work on the community. Thus, there is a need to assess the effect from both the perspective of the students and of the community members.

Untersuchungen zur antihypertensiven Langzeitwirkung von Candesartan-cilexetil in verschiedenen Dosierungen unter dem Einfluß therapiefreier Intervalle

In a randomized, phase IV clinical study with 4 parallel treatment arms, the long-lasting treatment effect of candesartan cilexetil (CAS 145040-37-5, CC, Blopress) was to be demonstrated for a repeated therapy-free interval of 48 h in the dosages 8 and 16 mg with or without hydrochlorothiazide 12.5 mg (CAS 58-93-5, HCT; 4 groups totally). The reason for this design was the known possibility of missed tablet doses in the patients' daily practice leading to a not always sufficient lowering of blood pressure in essential hypertension. Therefore, the intake of the daily tablet dose was intentionally omitted twice (after 6 and 8 weeks) during the 8-week study treatment period. Primary efficacy variable was the comparison of blood pressure lowering before and after the first 48-hour therapy-free interval following a 6-week treatment period. The confirmatory analysis was done on the basis of paired t-tests and the Bonferroni-Holm "step-down procedure" for the systolic and diastolic results in each of the four treatment groups. Secondary variables were the efficacy 24 and 48 h after the last tablet intake following a 6- and 8-week treatment period, the blood pressure normalization rate and the tolerability. 312 out-patients from 46 study centers in Germany with mild or moderate essential hypertension strictly treated according to the protocol requirements were evaluated in terms of all primary and secondary study parameters. The patient allocation to the 4 treatment arms as well as the conditions at study start concerning demographic data, physical investigation, patient history, ECG, concomitant diseases/therapy and baseline values of blood pressure were well comparable between the four groups. The antihypertensive therapy with CC showed the expected clear effect on blood pressure lowering in 312 per-protocol treated patients with in addition an increase for the higher dosages and for the combination with HCT. The mean rate of lowering (systolic/diastolic) after 24 h for all treatment groups together was 14.5/8.1 mmHg after 6 weeks and 17.3/9.5 mmHg after 8 weeks of therapy. The described antihypertensive blood lowering effect could be maintained in nearly 100% diastolic and 100% systolic values for the first 48-hour therapy-free interval after 6 weeks and in about 100% diastolic and 80% systolic values for the second interval after 8 weeks. These results could be reproduced without relevant differences for the respective single outcome in the four treatment groups. Regarding the primary study efficacy criterion the achieved lowering of blood pressure was highly statistically significant with p-values < 0.0001 in all 4 groups both for systolic and diastolic results. In addition, the long-term action over 48 h could be confirmed by the specific analysis according to Bonferroni-Holm showing that the p-values of all eight hypotheses were below the adjusted significance levels, i.e. in terms of the systolic and diastolic endpoints within the 4 treatment groups. Furthermore, statistically significant differences between the four treatment arms could not be detected regarding the long-lasting blood pressure lowering effect over As for tolerability the entire study provides no evidence on new or unknown pathologic drug reactions as well as on a frequent occurrence of specific adverse events or relevant laboratory changes. The objectives of the present study were completely met by confirming statistically and clinically the assumption of a clear, long-lasting, safe and metabolically neutral action of CC both for low and high dosages with or without HCT. The intended lowering of blood pressure is effective and well tolerable also repeatedly during the 48-h, therapy-free interval (missed dose trial) which corresponds to a frequent omission of the daily tablet dose and thus well reflects the daily practice in antihypertensive therapeutic regimens.

PSYCHOMETRIC ANALYSIS OF A 5E LEARNING CYCLE LESSON PLAN ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENT

The purpose of this paper is to describe the procedures and the analysis of an instrument designed to measure preservice teachers’ ability to develop appropriate 5E learning cycle lesson plans. The 5E inquiry lesson plan (ILP) rubric is comprised of 12 items with a scoring range of zero to four points per item. Content validity was determined through the expertise of a panel of five science educators. Sixty six preservice teachers enrolled in elementary science methods at three universities prepared lesson plans, which were scored by their instructors using the ILP rubric. Using a Pearson two-tailed correlation, inter-rater reliability was established at a value of 0.83. An exploratory factor analysis provided evidence of construct validity, with three factors. The factors included (1) explore, (2) engage/explain/elaborate, and (3) evaluate. In addition, a secondary analysis revealed the means and standard deviations of the students' performance on each of the phases of the 5E that include: engage, explore, explain, elaborate, and evaluate. The engage item held the highest mean rating, and the evaluation items had the lowest mean ratings. Examination of the instrument's structure in light of the 5E phases is discussed and provides directions for future revisions and research.

An empirical comparison of non‐Big 4 and Big 4 auditors' perceptions of auditor independence

PurposePerceived independence is one of the corner‐stones in auditing theory. Despite prior research on auditor independence, the results are inconclusive. The lack of research in the Hong Kong auditing environment motivates this study, particularly following the Enron débâcle. The purpose of this paper is to examine the non‐audit services (NASs), competition, rank and types of auditors, in respect of the independence problem as it relates to the practices of Hong Kong auditors in the post‐Enron environment.Design/methodology/approachFour independent variables identified from literature gaps are examined, namely NASs, levels of competition, auditors of different ranks and types of auditors. Mixed ANOVA are employed to analyze survey responses from 207 “Big 4” and 185 “non‐Big 4” auditors.FindingsResults of the study show that the provisions of NASs and high competition could have a negative influence on auditors' perceptions of independence. Second, auditors' perceptions that the influence of NASs on independence depends on an individual auditor's rank are supported. Senior managers have the highest mean rating on perceptions, while partners have the lowest mean rating. Results support the agency theory that the agent (senior manager) may not always act in the best interests for the principal. Finally, there is no difference between Big 4 and non‐Big 4 auditors' perceptions of the influence of NASs and competition on independence.Originality/valueThe study revokes earlier US research that indicates that NASs provisions favorably influence auditors' perceptions of independence. It would be advantageous for a regulatory body to reconsider professional reforms such as prohibitions of NASs and the repercussions of non compliance of independence.