Low Subjective Socioeconomic Status Research Articles

Winning Exposure and Positive Illusions Among Chinese Lottery Gamblers: Moderating Effects of Lottery Winning Experience and Socioeconomic Status.

Positive illusions and winning exposure are key factors leading to problem lottery gambling, but few studies have examined the relationships between them. 402 Chinese lottery gamblers was conducted with the Winning Exposure Questionnaire, the Positive illusion Questionnaire, the Winning Experience Questionnaire, and the Social and Economic Status Questionnaire to investigate the relationship between winning exposure and positive illusions as well as the moderating role of winning experience and socioeconomic status. The results showed that winning exposure can significantly and positively predict the positive illusions (optimism bias, better than average bias, and illusion of control) of lottery gamblers. The highest winning amount and subjective socioeconomic status significantly moderated the relationship between winning exposure and optimism bias. That was to say, for lottery gamblers with smaller maximum winning amount and lower subjective socioeconomic status, the association between winning exposure and optimism bias was stronger. Furthermore, the moderating effect of highest winning amount in the relationship between winning exposure and better than average bias, and the moderating effects of occupational status and subjective socioeconomic status in the relationship between winning exposure and illusion of control were marginally significant.

15 Does Subjective Socioeconomic Status Mediate the Relationship Between Objective Socioeconomic Status and Neuropsychological Test Performance Across Race and Ethnicity?

Objective:Socioeconomic disadvantage is a chronic stressor associated with several biological markers of health (e.g., inflammation) as well as early-onset cognitive aging. Studies examining socioeconomic status (SES) and its link with health outcomes exhibit no uniformity in the way in which SES is measured and defined. Also, studies have found that subjective socioeconomic status (SSES), defined by a subjective SES scale, was more consistently and strongly related to psychological functioning and health-related outcomes than objective socioeconomic status (OSES), defined by a composite score of education, household income, and occupation. The goal of the current study was to assess whether SSES mediates the relationship between OSES and neuropsychological test performance similarly across racial and ethnic groups.Participants and Methods:Participants were 1,912 middle-aged older adults (13% non-Hispanic white, 17% non-Hispanic Black, 69% Hispanic/Latinx) from the Offspring study. Participants are the adult children of participants in the Washington Heights Inwood Columbia Aging Project, a community-based cohort study of aging and dementia representing the ethnic/racial diversity of upper Manhattan. Participants on average were 56.5 years of age and 67% were women. Measures of verbal learning and memory (SRT immediate and delayed recall), verbal fluency (animal and letter fluency), and attention/working memory (digit span forward and backward) were administered. OSES was characterized by years of formal education completed. SSES was measured by the MacArthur Scale of Subjective Social Status. The scale measures perceptions of one’s social standing relative to others. We conducted separate stratified mediation analyses for each neuropsychological outcome across each racial and ethnic group. All models were adjusted for age.Results:Participants with higher OSES demonstrated higher neuropsychological test scores (effect size associations ranged from .29 to .45) and reported higher SSES (b=.109 95% CI: .08, .14). Lower SSES was associated with lower neuropsychological test scores (effect-size range .06 to .13). In stratified analyses, the relationship between OSES and SSES was strongest for White participants (b=.13 [.01, .24]) compared with Latinx (b=.06 [.02, .11]) and Black (b=.06 [-.03, .16]) participants. Associations between SSES and neuropsychological outcomes were only reliable for White participants on SRT Immediate and Delayed Recall and Animal Fluency and for Black participants on Digit Span Forward. In mediation analyses, SSES mediated the relationship between OSES and Immediate Recall (indirect effect b=.18 [.001, .45]; 39% mediated), Delayed Recall (indirect effect b=.05 [.004, .09]; 44% mediated), and Animal Fluency (indirect effect b=.09 [.01, .20]; 22% mediated) for White participants. There was no evidence of mediation in Black or Latinx participants.Conclusions:The relationship between OSES and SSES was strongest for White participants compared to Black and Latinx participants. Even though perception of social status predicted lower cognitive test scores among Black and Latinx adults, it is only a part of the indirect pathway linking OSES to cognitive function among White adults. It is likely that mechanisms related to tangible resources that benefit health (as opposed to perceived inequity) are in the pathway linking education to cognition among Black and Latinx, and thus intervening on systems of inequality throughout the life course has the most promise for improving brain health in those communities.

Depression and anxiety symptoms among Vietnamese migrants in Japan during the COVID-19 pandemic

This study aimed to examine the mental health status and related factors among Vietnamese migrants in Japan during the COVID-19 pandemic. We conducted an online cross-sectional survey between September 21 and October 21, 2021. Along with Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9) and Generalized Anxiety Disorder 7-item (GAD-7) scores, we collected data on demographics, changes in socioeconomic status due to the pandemic, language proficiency, social support, and health conditions. Multivariate logistic regression was performed to identify factors related to symptoms of depression and anxiety. Among 621 participants who completed the questionnaire, moderate-to-severe symptoms of depression (PHQ-9 score ≥ 10 points) and mild-to-severe symptoms of anxiety (GAD-7 score ≥ 5 points) were observed in 203 (32.7%) and 285 (45.9%) individuals, respectively. Factors related to depressive symptoms were age (95% confidence interval [CI]=0.89-0.99), pre-existing health conditions (95% [CI]=1.61–3.76), and a low subjective socioeconomic status (95% [CI]=1.64–3.71). Factors related to anxiety symptoms were being single (95% [CI]=1.01–2.93), having pre-existing health conditions (95% [CI]=1.63–3.88), subjective socioeconomic status (95% [CI]=1.87–3.97), and absence of a partner to discuss one’s health with (95% [CI]=1.11–2.47). Vietnamese migrants in Japan experienced a decrease in income, worsening working conditions, and poor mental health status during the COVID-19 pandemic. Further investigations are necessary to find an effective way to increase their social support and mitigate socioeconomic adversities.

Do you trust the rumors? Examining the determinants of health‐related misinformation in India

AbstractRumors, conspiracies, and health‐related misinformation have gone hand‐in‐hand with the global COVID‐19 pandemic, making it hard to obtain reliable and accurate information. Against this background, this study examined the different psychosocial predictors of believing in conspiratorial information related to general health in India. Indian participants (N = 826) responded to measures related to conspiratorial thinking, trust, moral emotions, political ideology, bullshit receptivity, and belief in conspiratorial information in an online survey. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were used to determine the validity of the instruments used with an Indian sample. Results revealed that lower subjective socioeconomic status, lower trust in political institutions, greater negative moral emotions, greater conspiratorial thinking, and right‐leaning political ideology predicted beliefs in health‐related conspiratorial information. In highlighting these potential psychosocial determinants of conspiratorial beliefs, we can move toward combating conspiracies effectively and developing necessary interventions for the same. Future work can focus on assessing the moderating effects of political ideology on conspiratorial beliefs in India.

Subjective socioeconomic status and income inequality are associated with self-reported morality across 67 countries

Individuals can experience a lack of economic resources compared to others, which we refer to as subjective experiences of economic scarcity. While such experiences have been shown to shift cognitive focus, attention, and decision-making, their association with human morality remains debated. We conduct a comprehensive investigation of the relationship between subjective experiences of economic scarcity, as indexed by low subjective socioeconomic status at the individual level, and income inequality at the national level, and various self-reported measures linked to morality. In a pre-registered study, we analyze data from a large, cross-national survey (N = 50,396 across 67 countries) allowing us to address limitations related to cross-cultural generalizability and measurement validity in prior research. Our findings demonstrate that low subjective socioeconomic status at the individual level, and income inequality at the national level, are associated with higher levels of moral identity, higher morality-as-cooperation, a larger moral circle, and increased prosocial intentions. These results appear robust to several advanced control analyses. Finally, exploratory analyses indicate that observed income inequality at the national level is not a statistically significant moderator of the associations between subjective socioeconomic status and the included measures of morality. These findings have theoretical and practical implications for understanding human morality under experiences of resource scarcity.

Does subjective socioeconomic status moderate the effect of basic psychological need satisfaction on undergraduates' affective forecasting?

Affective forecasts are people's predictions of their future feelings in response to future events. In this study, based on the self-determination theory (SDT), we examined whether satisfying basic psychological needs influence undergraduates' affective forecasting and the moderating role of subjective socioeconomic status (SES). With a total of 423 undergraduate participants (177 males, 246 females), through one pilot study and three experiments, we first manipulated participants' basic psychological need satisfaction, i.e., autonomy need satisfaction (study 1), competence need satisfaction (study 2), and relatedness need satisfaction (study 3), then we asked low-SES and high-SES participants, respectively, to predict the pleasantness of a particular new product and evaluated the actual experience with the product. Results showed that the effect of basic psychological need on affective forecasting was not significant. When the need for autonomy need and competence need was satisfied, the impact bias was greater for the high SES than the low SES. Conversely, when the relatedness need was satisfied, the impact bias was greater for the low SES than the high SES. In conclusion, subjective SES moderated the influence of basic psychological needs satisfaction on increasing the impact bias in affective forecasting.

Exploring the relationship between mental health literacy and psychological distress in adolescents: A moderated mediation model

Previous studies on the relationship between mental health literacy and psychological distress were rich, but little was known about the influence mechanism between them, and almost no research was found on the role of psychological resilience and subjective socio-economic status in the relationship between them. This study used a moderated mediation model to test the mediating effect of psychological resilience on the relationship between mental health literacy and psychological distress, and the moderating effect of subjective socioeconomic status in Chinese adolescents. We investigated 700 junior high school students in Inner Mongolia, China through online survey. The results are as follows: (1) Mental health literacy is a negative predictor of adolescents' psychological distress; (2) psychological resilience mediated the association between mental health literacy and psychological distress; (3) The first half of the model, that is, the relationship between mental health literacy and psychological resilience, is moderated by subjective socioeconomic status. Specifically, for adolescents with low subjective socioeconomic status, the positive predictive effect of mental health literacy on psychological resilience is obviously enhanced. The current findings would contribute to a deep understanding of the relationship among adolescents' mental health literacy, psychological resilience, subjective socioeconomic status and psychological distress, which may be of great significance to the prevention of adolescents' psychological distress.

The Protective Role of Social-Oriented Digital Media Use in Children’s and Adolescents’ Life Satisfaction During the Covid-19 Pandemic

Covid-19 measures have reduced children’s and adolescents’ life satisfaction (LS), a key indicator of well-being. However, we have limited evidence of the longitudinal associations between changes in LS and different types of digital media use throughout the pandemic. Using data collected in Ticino, Italian-speaking Switzerland from 764 children and adolescents (Mage = 12.51, SDage = 4.00, 52% females) over five months starting from September 2020, the current study investigated temporal variations in LS, and how process-oriented versus social-oriented digital media use predicted LS, controlling for socio-demographic variables. Results of the quadratic latent growth curve model showed a steeper decrease in LS at the beginning of the second wave of the pandemic in Autumn 2020. Process-oriented digital media use predicted lower starting levels (i.e., the intercept) of LS, whereas social-oriented digital media use acted as a protective factor against the initial decrement of LS (i.e., linear slope) and positively influenced the rate of change of LS (i.e., the quadratic slope), pointing towards a faster return to baseline levels. Females, adolescents, participants with low subjective socio-economic status, and non-Swiss participants reported lower levels of LS. Results suggest that when in-person social contacts are compromised, social-oriented use of digital technologies should be promoted in young people to obtain and maintain social contacts that are crucial for LS and their well-being. LS may be conceived as a predisposing condition to accumulate, preserve, and restore mental and social well-being, which, in turn, allow individuals to contribute to their community and society at large.

Subjective socioeconomic status and envy in Chinese collectivist culture: The role of sense of control

This study explored the relationship between subjective socioeconomic status (SSS) and envy, as well as the role that sense of control plays in this relationship in the Chinese collectivist culture. Participants were 927 Chinese adults (female = 64.8%; mean age = 24.52 years, SD = 4.935 years) who completed a series of questionnaires. Structural equation modelling showed that having a lower SSS was associated with a higher level of dispositional, benign, and malicious envy. Sense of control negatively mediated the relationship between SSS and dispositional, benign, and malicious envy. Multigroup analyses revealed no sex differences in either main or indirect effects. These results are related to the Chinese collectivist culture. The mediating role of sense of control is partially consistent with the social cognitive theory of social class. We propose that interventions focusing on sense of control could help reduce debilitating envy and its negative effects among lower SSS individuals.

Subjective socioeconomic status is associated with risk aversion in a community-based cohort of older adults without dementia.

Attitudes towards risk impact financial decisions that are critical in older adulthood. Socioeconomic status (SES) influences an individual's level of risk aversion; however, the association of subjective SES (i.e., social standing relative to others) with risk aversion has not been explored. We examined whether subjective SES is associated with risk aversion independent of objective SES (i.e., income, education). Participants were 933 older adults without dementia from the Rush Memory and Aging Project (MAP) or Minority Aging Research Study (MARS), two longitudinal epidemiologic studies of aging. Participants completed assessments of risk aversion, subjective SES, and cognition. We examined associations of subjective SES with risk aversion using mixed models adjusting for participant characteristics, objective markers of SES and global cognition. In bivariate analyses, lower global cognitive functioning, lower income, female sex, Black race, and lower subjective SES were associated with greater risk aversion. Results of the nonlinear mixed effects model revealed that higher subjective SES was associated with less risk aversion (Estimate = -0.238, SE = 0.083, p = 0.004), after controlling for covariates. Age, sex, race, and global cognition were also associated with risk aversion in the mixed effects model (ps 0.03), although income and education were not (ps 0.27) The relationship between subjective SES and risk aversion did not differ by sex or race (ps 0.31). Findings suggest that subjective SES contributes to risk aversion regardless of sex or race. Findings support the importance of considering subjective indicators of SES as they may impact an older adult's economic preferences.

The role of socioeconomic status in different trajectories of depressive symptoms in Chinese college freshmen.

The associations between socioeconomic status (SES) and depressive symptoms have been found in previous studies. However, the role of SES in different trajectories of depressive symptoms in Chinese college freshmen has not been discovered. The present study aims to identify how depressive symptom trajectories are related to SES during the first semester of freshman. Six hundred fifty-two Chinese college freshmen (64.9% female) were followed 4 times across 4 months. The Latent Growth Mixture Model (LGMM) was used to identify trajectories of depressive symptoms. Multinomial Logical Regression was used to identify the influence of family socioeconomic status (FSES), subjective socioeconomic status (SSS), and demographic variables on trajectories of depressive symptoms for freshmen. Results found that college freshmen’s depressive symptoms gradually decreased during the four tests, F(2.758, 1795.383) = 52.642, p < 0.001, and there are three trajectories of depressive symptoms: normal group (Class 1, 73.1%), depression risk group (Class 2, 20.7%), and depression deterioration group (Class 3, 6.1%). The decline of SSS predicted increasing depressive symptoms. Age and left-behind experience have significant effects on trajectories of depressive symptoms. FSES, birthplace, and gender had no significant impact on trajectories of depressive symptoms. These results demonstrated that low SSS, age, and left-behind might be risk factors for the development of depressive symptoms.

Subjective socioeconomic disadvantage is indirectly associated with food portion selection through perceived disruption of personal resources during a nationwide COVID-19 stay-at-home order

In addition to its public health implications, the global COVID-19 pandemic has also produced significant disruptions to individuals' socioeconomic resources and opportunities. Prior research has suggested that low subjective socioeconomic status (SSES) may stimulate appetite and motivate increased energy intake. Here, we tested whether individuals experiencing lower levels of SSES (SSES disadvantage) during a nationwide stay-at-home order for COVID-19 exhibited preferences for larger food portion sizes through perceived disruptions to personal financial and material resources. Data was collected near the conclusion of a nationwide partial lockdown (Singapore's “Circuit-Breaker” from April to June 2020). Participants (N = 295) completed an online survey involving a measure of SSES, the Coronavirus Impacts Questionnaire, and a food portion selection task where participants estimated the portion size they prefer to consume for a range of common foods. SSES disadvantage was associated with selection of smaller average portion sizes. Yet, a significant indirect effect of coronavirus impact was observed in this relationship, such that participants experiencing greater SSES disadvantage selected larger portion sizes through the effect of greater perceived impacts of COVID-19 to one's financial/material resources (controlling for one's actual level of income). These findings further support the idea that perceived deprivation and insecurity of important resources (financial, social, material) may influence intentions to consume greater amounts of energy. Consequently, systematic societal disruptions to such resources may reinforce and perpetuate potentially obesogenic eating behaviors of populations that are especially vulnerable to such shocks (i.e., people experiencing SSES disadvantage).

Lower Subjective Socioeconomic Status Is Associated With Increased Risk of Reporting Negative Experiences on Social Media. Findings From the "LifeOnSoMe"-Study.

ObjectivesTo investigate the association between subjective socioeconomic status (SES) and a) frequency and daily duration of social media use, and b) self-reported negative experiences on social media platforms.MethodsThe present study is based on the cross-sectional school-based “LifeOnSoMe”-study (N = 3,415) recruiting high school students aged 16 years or more in Bergen, Norway. Subjective SES was the independent variable and measured by perceived family affluence. The dependent variables included self-reported amount of social media use, and eight different types of negative experiences on social media. Self-reported age, gender, country of birth and type study were used as covariates. Statistical analyses included multinomial logistic regression and negative binomial regression models.ResultsFor amount of social media use, we only found relatively weak and inconsistent associations with SES. In contrast, the associations between SES and separate variables gauging negative experiences were robust in crude models as well as in models adjusted for age and gender. The number of different negative experiences were increased by 1.25 times for those with low and by 1.10 times for those with medium socioeconomic status, compared to those with high socioeconomic status in fully adjusted models. For composite measures of “negative acts and exclusion” and “unwanted attention from others,” the difference between low and high SES was equivalent to a small-to-moderate effect size even after adjustments for age, gender, country of birth, type of study and amount of social media use.ConclusionsIn the present study, we found consistent and strong support for an association between SES and negative experiences on social media even after adjustments for age, gender, country of birth, type of study, and amount of social media use. The potential link between SES and negative experiences on social media as reported in this study is likely to have a public health impact. As the reported findings are novel, they need to be replicated in forthcoming studies based on other study populations. Future research should also focus on other aspects of SES and negative experiences, as well as endeavor to investigate potential longitudinal associations.

The effects of subjective socioeconomic status on conspicuous consumption

AbstractConspicuous consumption, the purchase, and exhibit of expensive and luxury items to signal wealth and status to others, is common in everyday life. Although conspicuous consumption seems to be exclusive to high‐status people, past research suggests that conspicuous consumption also allows people to compensate for feeling being lower in the social hierarchy. Four studies (Study 1a: N = 242; Study 1b: N = 208; Study 2, N = 242; Study 3, N = 128) examined the relationship between subjective socioeconomic status (SES) and conspicuous consumption, and the moderating role of social mobility beliefs. We found that people with low subjective SES are more likely to engage in conspicuous consumption (Studies 1a, 1b, and 2). We also provided evidence for the joint effect of subjective SES and social mobility belief on conspicuous consumption, such that low subjective SES people who perceive low social mobility are more prone to conspicuous consumption than other people (Studies 2 and 3). The findings are robust to whether subjective SES was measured (Studies 1a) or manipulated (Studies 1b, 2, and 3) and various forms of conspicuous consumption. The current research contributes to the literature on SES, conspicuous consumption, and social mobility belief. Practical implications and future directions are discussed.

Subjective socioeconomic status: An indicator of intimate partner violence in middle-aged adults in Hong Kong.

Intimate partner violence (IPV) has recently been recognised as a global public health issue that can cause various kinds of long-lasting physical, sexual and psychological health problems. Limited studies are available concerning the relationship between objective and subjective socioeconomic status (SES) and IPV, and the impact of experiencing IPV on health consequences. This is a cross-sectional study aiming to examine the association between objective and subjective SES as risk factors of IPV, and further investigate how they affect health status in adults who experienced IPV. A total of 400 participants were recruited from June to September 2016 among 18 districts in Hong Kong. Results from multiple linear regression showed that having a higher education (adjusted B [aB]=0.22, 95% CI=0.01, 0.45), having lower levels of subjective SES (aB=-0.08, 95% CI=-0.15, -0.01), experiencing childhood stress (aB=0.58, 95% CI=0.27, 0.89) and being married (aB=0.60, 95% CI=0.01, 1.19) were significantly associated with IPV. While employment and household income were not associated with IPV. Participants with higher levels of subjective SES were more likely to report somatic symptom (aB=-0.44, 95% CI=-0.87, -0.02), anxiety (aB=-0.38, 95% CI=-0.72, -0.04) and depressive symptom (aB=-0.52, 95% CI=-0.94, -0.10). Low subjective SES, instead of low objective SES, was found associated with IPV in Chinese adults. A priority for future studies is the confirmation and expansion of subjective SES and its function in clinical measures. Programmes instilling hope and optimism will be helpful to enhance subjective SES and boost physical and mental well-being in IPV survivors.

The independent and joint contribution of objective and subjective socioeconomic status on oral health indicators.

The understanding of how subjective socioeconomic status (SSS) relates to objective socioeconomic status (OSS), and how both conditions act together in oral health outcomes is still unclear. This study aims to test the independent and joint association between OSS and SSS with oral health, to assess the role of socioeconomic status discrepancies, and to evaluate the role of SSS in the association between OSS and oral health. Data from 1140 adults from a population-based study in Southern Brazil were used. We applied diagonal reference models DRM to disentangle the effects of OSS (education) and SSS (MacArthur Scale) to oral health outcomes. The outcomes were functional dentition clinically evaluated (FD ≥20 teeth) and self-reported oral health SROH. We also examined the discrepancy between OSS and SSS to oral health indicators and the effect measure modification (EMM) of SSS on the association between OSS and oral health. Subjective socioeconomic status and OSS contributed equally to SROH, while OSS explained a substantially higher amount of FD than SSS (0.85 vs 0.15). An EMM of SSS was found on the association between OSS and fair/poor SROH, with a relative excess risk due to interaction (RERI) of 1.08. Less evidence of EMM was found for FD (RERI=0.14). Individuals with lower SSS and OSS had four times the risk of the outcomes than the reference group. Adults with concordant lower SSS and OSS have a worse oral health than those with concordant higher status. There was evidence that the association between OSS and SROH is modified by SSS.

Prevalence and predictors of elevated liver enzyme levels in Mexico: The Mexican National Health and Nutrition Survey, 2016

Introduction and objectiveTo determine the prevalence of elevated liver enzyme levels and the fatty liver index according to specific sociodemographic, clinical, anthropometric, and metabolic risk factors in Mexican adult population. Material and methodsThe present analysis was conducted using data from the Mexican National Health and Nutrition Survey 2016. For the present study, 3,490 adults with complete information on liver enzymes, sociodemographic, lifestyle, and metabolic factors were analyzed. Alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), and gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT) levels were determined from blood samples. We computed the fatty liver Index (FLI), as a surrogate marker of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. The associations are reported as adjusted odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (95%CI). ResultsAt the national level, the prevalence of high serum levels of ALT, AST, and GGT were 7.9%, 13.5, and 12.9 respectively. We observed that men had higher prevalences of altered ALT, GGT and FLI compared to women. Additionally, we observe that individuals with obesity, metabolic syndrome and insulin resistance are significantly more likely to present elevated concentrations of AST, ALT, GGT and FLI. Finally, we found that the subjects of the lowest socioeconomic level and indigenous population were more likely to present elevated levels of AST, ALT, GGT, and FLI. ConclusionIn Mexico, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease affect people with obesity, diabetes, and metabolic syndrome as well as men, subjects of low socioeconomic status, subjects who live in rural areas and indigenous population. Interventions to reduce this condition should be a public health priority.

Shared disadvantage as a determinant of the relationship between White Americans’ socioeconomic status and racial/ethnic prejudice

AbstractThe present studies examined the conditions under which low subjective socioeconomic status (SES) is associated with greater racial/ethnic prejudice among White Americans. Using theories of intergroup threat and inclusive victim consciousness, we predicted that describing racial/ethnic minorities as disadvantaged (vs. as competitive or in neutral terms) would increase empathy and reduce prejudice among White Americans who consider themselves low in SES. Study 1 provided correlational evidence that White Americans who perceived themselves as low‐SES (but not high‐SES) were less prejudiced against racial/ethnic minorities the more they perceived minorities as disadvantaged. In Study 2, portraying the target outgroup (Arab immigrants) as disadvantaged increased outgroup empathy, and in turn reduced prejudice, among participants induced to think of themselves as low‐SES. Study 3 conceptually replicated these results using a different outgroup (Mexican Americans) and a behavioral measure of prejudice. Implications for reducing prejudice among White Americans of different socioeconomic backgrounds are discussed.

Can Pets Replace Children? The Interaction Effect of Pet Attachment and Subjective Socioeconomic Status on Fertility Intention.

A growing number of young people tend to regard their pets as their surrogate children, yet research examining the relationship between pet attachment and fertility intention remains scarce. Moreover, individuals’ fertility intention is affected by economic resources. Therefore, we conducted two studies to examine the interaction effect of pet attachment and subjective socioeconomic status (SES) on childbearing-aged individuals’ fertility intention. In Study 1, we utilized questionnaires to measure Chinese pet owners’ pet attachment, subjective SES, and fertility intention. In Study 2, participants’ pet attachment was experimentally manipulated by reading articles about the benefits of petkeeping. The results of the two studies consistently demonstrated that the effect of pet attachment on fertility intention was moderated by subjective SES. Specifically, pet attachment was negatively associated with fertility intention when individuals had a high level of subjective SES, whereas this effect disappeared when individuals had low subjective SES. These findings suggest an explanation for why individuals with high subjective SES delay or even opt out of childbearing. The limitations and implications of the current study are discussed.

The School-Ladder Effect: Subjective Socioeconomic Status and Diurnal Cortisol Profile Among Adolescents.

Subjective socioeconomic status (SES) is a well-established psychosocial determinant of adolescents' self-report health. However, whether low subjective SES is associated with stress-related physiological risks (e.g., dysregulations in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activity) remains uncertain. This study examined the impact of subjective SES with different reference groups (i.e., perception of family SES relative to other students in the school versus other people in the city) on adolescents' diurnal cortisol profiles. A sample of 255 adolescents (aged 11-14 years; 53.7% boys) completed a battery of psychological scales, including school-referenced subjective SES and city-referenced subjective SES. Diurnal cortisol was assessed by collecting saliva samples four times a day across two consecutive days. Four cortisol parameters (cortisol at awakening, cortisol awakening response [CAR], cortisol slope, and total cortisol secretion [area under the curve with respect to ground {AUCg}]) were derived. Higher levels of school-referenced subjective SES were associated with higher cortisol levels at awakening (β = 0.0483, standard error [SE] = 0.0219, p = .028), steeper cortisol slopes (β = -0.0036, SE = 0.0017, p = .034), and higher cortisol AUCg (b = 0.50, SE = 0.24, p = .036), but not with CAR (p = .77), after adjusting for covariates. In contrast, city-referenced subjective SES was not associated with any of the cortisol parameters (cortisol at awakening [p = .90], CAR [p = .74], cortisol slope [p = .84], and cortisol AUCg [p = .68]). Our findings highlight the importance of the reference group for subjective SES and provide a further understanding of socioeconomic disparities in adolescents' stress physiology.