Low Reorganization Energy Research Articles

Topological Arrangement of Fluorenyl-Substituted Carbazole Triads and Starbursts: Synthesis and Optoelectronic Properties

A series of fluorenyl-substituted carbazole linear triads and starbursts were synthesized by the Suzuki and Sonogashira coupling reactions. In these compounds, a fluorene unit is connected to the 1,8; 2,7; or 3,6 positions of the central carbazole ring to form linear triads or linked to the 1,3,6,8 positions to form starbursts. The optoelectronic properties of these different functionalized carbazole materials were investigated, and light-emitting devices based on starbursts were constructed and characterized. For the linear triads, we observed that the 2,7-position substitution is more efficient in extending the conjugation with the sacrifice of triplet energy. Moreover, the theoretical calculations predict that substitution at the 1,8 positions gives a high triplet energy of 2.71 eV, indicating that 1,8 substitution is an effective way to design high energy level host materials. Tetrasubstituted starbursts show a much lower HOMO and band gap than that of linear triads. It was interesting to observe that 4FCz shows a deep blue emission with high triplet energy. Moreover, 4FECz shows the lowest LUMO energy level and a very low hole reorganization energy, indicating its good hole transporting property.

Isophlorin derivatives: Structures and materials for n-Channel Organic Semiconductors

DFT and NMR calculations performed on isophlorin (1) and their derivatives (2-10) show that the 4O and the trans 2O, 2S derivatives (2 and 5) are anti-aromatic. The presence of strong SmS p$_{π}$-p$_{π}$ bonding interactions stabilizes the planar structure (5) compared to the non-planar cis-isomer (8). Isophlorins are predicted to have very low electron reorganization energies (λ$ _{electron} $ ∼ 0.10 eV) which remain unaffected by puckering through steric interactions or solvation in aqueous media. We predict isophlorins to be the ideal candidates for n-Channel organic conductors.

Theoretical investigation on the white-light emission from a single-polymer system with simultaneous blue and orange emission (Part II)

We report here a theoretical investigation of the white-light emission from a single-polymer system with simultaneous blue (polyfluorene as a blue host) and orange (2,1,3-benzothiadiazole(BTD)-based derivative as an orange dopant) emission. With use of quantum-chemical approaches, our studies are focused on the variation in electronic and optical properties as a function of the chemical composition of the backbone in BTD-based derivatives. Furthermore, the results show that the electronic and optical properties of designed BTD-based derivatives can be tuned by the introduction of suitable electron-donating groups on terminal N, N-disubstituted amino groups, implying good candidates as orange dopants in WPLEDs with polyfluorene as a blue-light-emitting host. In addition, low reorganization energy values of holes or narrow differences between hole and electron transportations within the framework of the charge hopping model suggest designed BTD-based derivatives to be good hole transport or ambipolar transport materials in organic light-emitting diodes. It is also found that the designed BTD-based derivatives containing fluorene-based unit exhibit higher stability.

Interheme electron tunneling in cytochrome c oxidase

Cytochrome c oxidase (CcO) is the terminal enzyme of the respiratory chain that catalyzes respiratory reduction of dioxygen (O(2)) to water in all eukaryotes and many aerobic bacteria. CcO, and its homologs among the heme-copper oxidases, has an active site composed of an oxygen-binding heme and a copper center in the vicinity, plus another heme group that donates electrons to this site. In most oxidoreduction enzymes, electron transfer (eT) takes place by quantum-mechanical electron tunneling. Here we show by independent molecular dynamics and quantum-chemical methods that the heme-heme eT in CcO differs from the majority of cases in having an exceptionally low reorganization energy. We show that the rate of interheme eT in CcO may nevertheless be predicted by the Moser-Dutton equation if reinterpreted as the average of the eT rates between all individual atoms of the donor and acceptor weighed by the respective packing densities between them. We argue that this modification may be necessary at short donor/acceptor distances comparable to the donor/acceptor radii.

The detailed balance limit of photochemical energy conversion

Limits and optimization of a solar energy conversion system consisting of a photochemical charge separating unit coupled to an energy storage state are explored by multi-objective genetic algorithms. Pareto fronts were evaluated to obtain information about the ideal parameter combinations, guaranteeing highest efficiency. The light absorbing and charge separating unit is described by a chain of chromophores and electron carriers, connected by Marcus type electron transfer processes. It is coupled to the thermal equilibrium of charge conduction and transport in an energy storage system according to the principle of detailed balance. In addition to our previous findings for an optimal charge separation unit, consisting of a minimum number of charge carriers with adapted recombination and reaction rates, the complete photochemical unit must fulfil further requirements. Low reorganization energies are found to be essential for the initial charge separation steps and can be realized by a low dielectric constant in the local environment. The identified optimal operation rates can be realized by antenna systems adapted to the illumination conditions. For standard solar illumination and a realistic parameter setting energy conversion efficiencies up to 26.8% are predicted, comparable to the limit (31.8%) of ideal single junction semiconductor solar cells.

Theoretical investigation on the white-light emission from a single-polymer system with simultaneous blue and orange emission

White organic light-emitting devices (WOLEDs) have attracted considerable attention because of their good potential for various lighting applications. Among these devices, WOLEDs based on polymers (WPLEDs) are of particular interest. We report here a theoretical investigation of the white-light emission from a single-polymer system with simultaneous blue (polyfluorene as a blue host) and orange (2,1,3-benzothiadiazole-based derivative as an orange dopant) emission. A variety of theoretical methods are used and evaluated to calculate electronic and optical properties of polyfluorene and 2,1,3-benzothiadiazole-based derivatives. Simulated electronic and optical properties are found to agree well with available experimental measurements. The influence of the “CH”/N heterosubstitution on the electronic and optical properties of the 2,1,3-benzothiadiazole-based derivative is considered. Furthermore, we find that the electronic and optical properties of “CH”/N substitution derivatives can be tuned by symmetrically adding suitable electron-donating groups on N, N-disubstituted amino groups, implying good candidates as orange dopants in WPLEDs with polyfluorene as a blue-light-emitting host. Solvent (dichloromethane) effects on the electronic and optical properties of 2,1,3-benzothiadiazole-based derivatives have been investigated. In addition, low reorganization energy values of holes for designed 2,1,3-benzothiadiazole-based derivatives within the framework of the charge hopping model suggest them to be good hole transfer materials.

Photosynthetic Reaction Center Mimicry: Low Reorganization Energy Driven Charge Stabilization in Self-Assembled Cofacial Zinc Phthalocyanine Dimer−Fullerene Conjugate

By employing well-defined self-assembly methods, a biomimetic bacterial photosynthetic reaction center complex has been constructed, and photoinduced electron transfer originating in this supramolecular donor-acceptor conjugate has been investigated. The biomimetic model of the bacterial "special pair" donor, a cofacial zinc phthalocyanine dimer, was formed via potassium ion induced dimerization of 4,5,4',5',4'', 5'',4''',5'''-zinc tetrakis(1,4,7,10,13-pentaoxatridecamethylene)phthalocyanine. The dimer was subsequently self-assembled with functionalized fullerenes via "two-point" binding involving axial coordination and crown ether-alkyl ammonium cation complexation to form the donor-acceptor pair, mimicking the noncovalently bound entities of the bacterial photosynthetic reaction center. The adopted self-assembly methodology yielded a supramolecular complex of higher stability with defined geometry and orientation as revealed by the binding constant and computational optimized structure. Unlike the previously reported porphyrin analog, the present phthalocyanine macrocycle based model system exhibited superior electron-transfer properties including formation of a long-lived charge-separated state, a key step of the photosynthetic light energy conversion process. Detailed analysis of the kinetic data in light of the Marcus theory of electron transfer revealed that small reorganization energy of the relatively rigid phthalocyanine is primarily responsible for slower charge-recombination process. The importance of the cofacial dimer in stabilizing the charge-separated state is borne out in the present all-supramolecular "reaction center" donor-acceptor mimic.

Fused-Ring Pyrazine Derivatives for n-Type Field-Effect Transistors

Three new fused-ring pyrazine derivatives end-functionalized with trifluoromethylphenyl groups have been synthesized. The effect of a fused-ring pyrazine core on the thermal, electronic, optical, thin film morphology, and organic field-effect transistor (OFET) properties was investigated both experimentally and theoretically. Electrochemistry measurements and density functional theory calculations suggest that the pyrazine core plays a significant role in tuning the electron affinities of these compounds. The optical absorption and fluorescence properties are also sensitive to the pyrazine core. The OFET devices based on the fused-ring pyrazine compounds exhibit electron mobilities as high as ca. 0.03 cm(2) V(-1) s(-1) under nitrogen, and their performance is sensitive to the pyrazine core. The larger pyrazine core leads to a lower LUMO level and lower reorganization energy, to more ordered thin film morphology with larger grain size, and finally to higher mobilities.

Conformational analysis of the conducting copolymer poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene- co-pyrrole)

Electronic structure methods have been used to investigate conducting copolymers of 3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene (EDOT) and pyrrole (Py). The calculations show the planar anti conformation and the syn conformers have extended conjugation. In the anti conformation the EDOT–Py dimer is calculated to have a lower reorganization energy (0.390 eV) than either homodimer (0.423 eV EDOT; 0.455 eV Py) and consequently is expected to have higher charge carrier mobility. The HOMO–LUMO gap of the copolymers is intermediate between the two homopolymers and for regular sequences varies monotonically as a function of the monomer content.

Redox Reactions of the Non-Heme Iron in Photosystem II: An EPR Spectroscopic Study

Photosystem II (PSII) contains a non-heme ferrous ion, located on the stromal side of the protein in close proximity to quinones A and B (Q(A) and Q(B)). We used EPR spectroscopy to examine the temperature-dependent redox reactions of the iron-quinone site, using it as a probe of potentially physiologically relevant proton-coupled electron-transfer (PCET) reactions. Complete chemical oxidation of the non-heme iron at ambient temperatures was followed by cryogenic photoreduction, producing a temperature-dependent yield of Fe(2+)Q(A) (or Fe(3+)Q(A)(-))...Chl(+)/Car(+)/Y(D)(*) charge separations. These charge separations were subsequently observed to partially recombine in the dark at cryogenic temperatures. We observed no double photochemical charge separations upon illumination at temperatures <or=30 K, demonstrating that Q(A) and Fe(3+) together act as a single electron-accepting moiety at very low temperatures. Our results indicate the existence of two populations of the iron-quinone site in PSII, one whose Fe(3+) signal is abolished by illumination at liquid helium temperatures and one whose Fe(3+) signal is abolished by illumination only above 75 K. The observation of non-heme iron photoreduction at cryogenic temperatures (possibly at liquid helium temperatures and certainly above 75 K) implies the existence of a low reorganization energy proton-transfer (ET) pathway within the protein to the non-heme iron environment, of possible relevance to the PCET reactions of Q(B) and/or the non-heme iron itself. Furthermore, we observed the partial reoxidation of the non-heme iron by charge recombination with previously oxidized chlorophyll, carotenoid, and Y(D) within PSII. This electron transfer might be important in the photoprotective transfer of oxidative power away from P(680)(+) and the oxygen-evolving complex in stressed PSII centers.

S11/4 Fast ligand and electron transfer dynamics in oxidases and cytochrome c

The active site of heme-copper oxidases contains two cofactors, heme a3 and CuB, which can both bind external ligands as the substrate O2 and signalling molecules NO and CO, and which are both involved in electron transfer processes. Over the last few years we have exploited the fact that the heme-ligand bond can be dissociated by a short light pulse to explore the dynamics of CO and NO in the active site and the interaction between the two cofactors using ultrafast spectroscopic techniques. For example, we have time-resolved the CO transfer from heme a3 to CuB and shown that it occurs in a ballistic way in ∼ 500 fs, which presumably reflects rigidity of the active site. Heme a is located close to heme a3 (∼ 7 A edge-to-edge) and acts as electron donor for the active site. Using mixed valence oxidases we have extended the 'reverse electron flow' technique to the ultrafast regime and demonstrated that this electron transfer process occurs in only 1.2 ns. The process is activationless and associated with a very low reorganization energy (< 200 meV), in contrast to common assumptions but in general agreement with the hydrophobic environment of the reactants. Finally, ligand dynamics in native and modified cytochrome c reflects the rigidity required for optimal electron transfer properties.

Computational study on optical and electronic properties of the “CH”/N substituted emitting materials based on spirosilabifluorene derivatives

In order to predict the substitution effect, equilibrium ground state geometry configurations and the relevant electronic properties of a series “CH”/N substituted symmetric and asymmetric spirosilabifluorene derivatives are optimized by the HF(B3LYP)/6-31G(d) method. Their excited state geometries are investigated using the CIS/6-31G(d) method. The absorption and emission spectra are evaluated at the TD-PBE0/6-31+G(d) level. Compared to the parent compound, the skeleton structure does not show any appreciable change. The “CH”/N substitution decreases both the E HOMO and E LUMO in S 0, and a very slight change is observed on Eg values. Thus no apparent change is predicted for the absorption/emission wavelength either. However, an efficient charge transfer is revealed within the “CH”/N substituted derivatives upon excitation. The properties may make these derivatives efficient electroluminescence materials. A series of low reorganization energy values are also obtained based on these derivatives, implying a potential application as charge-transport materials. Furthermore, we find that the performance and the optical properties of these derivatives can be improved by adding aryl groups and oligomerization.

Theoretical characterization of titanyl phthalocyanine as a p-type organic semiconductor: Short intermolecular π-π interactions yield large electronic couplings and hole transport bandwidths

The charge-transport properties of the triclinic phase II crystal of titanyl phthalocyanine (alpha-TiOPc) are explored within both a hopping and bandlike regime. Electronic coupling elements in convex- and concave-type dimers are calculated using density functional theory, and the relationship between molecular structure and crystal packing structure in model dimer configurations is considered. Hole transport bandwidths derived from crystal structure dimers are compared to those obtained from electronic band structure calculations; very good agreement between the two approaches is found. The calculations predict large hole bandwidths, on the order of 0.4 eV, and correspondingly very low hole reorganization energies.

Dependence of charge transfer reorganization energy on carrier localisation in organic molecular crystals

Taking the organic molecular material dithiophene-tetrathiafulvalene (DT-TTF) as an example of a high mobility organic molecular material, we use density functional calculations to calculate the dependency of the reorganization energy associated with charge carrier transport on: (i) the geometric and electronic responsiveness of the local molecular crystal environment, and, (ii) the local spatial extent of the charge carrier. We find that in our most realistic extended models the charge transfer reorganization energy is strongly dependent on carrier localization. In particular, whereas highly localized carriers are found to be highly susceptible to their charge transfer efficiency being affected by changes in the local crystal environment, more delocalized carriers are better able to maintain their low reorganization energies. Considering that maintaining a relatively small charge transfer reorganization energy magnitude is an important factor in achieving high carrier mobilities, we suggest that those materials better able to sustain carriers with short-range thermally resistant intermolecular delocalisation should be sought for device applications.

Study on a set of bis-cyclometalated Ir(iii) complexes with a common ancillary ligand

Bis-cyclometalated iridium(III) complexes [Ir(F2ppy)2ZN] (FZN), [Ir(F2CNppy)2ZN] (FCZN), [Ir(DMAF2ppy)2ZN] (FDZN) and [Ir(MeOF2ppy)2ZN] (MeOFZN) (F2ppy = 4',6'-difluoro-2-phenylpyridinate, F2CNppy = 5-cyano-4',6'-difluoro-2-phenylpyridinate, DMAF2ppy = 4',6'-difluoro-4-dimethylamino-2-phenylpyridinate, MeOF2ppy = 4',6'-difluoro-4-methyl-2-phenylpyridinate and ZN = 3,5-dimethylpyrazole-N-carboxamide) emitting in the sky blue region were synthesized. We studied the effect of the ancillary ligand ZN and the substituents on the cyclometalating ligands on the crystal structures, photophysical and electrochemical properties and the frontier orbitals. Density functional theory (DFT) calculation results indicate that in FCZN and FDZN the cyclometalating ligands show negligible participation in the HOMO, the ancillary ligand ZN being the main participant along with the Ir(III) d-orbitals. MeOFZN exhibits the maximum photoluminescence quantum efficiency and radiative emission rates along with the dominant low frequency metal-ligand vibrations and maximum reorganization energy in the excited state. All the substituted complexes show more polar characteristics than FZN, FCZN possessing the highest dipole moment among the complexes. The performances of the solution-synthesised organic light emitting devices (OLEDs) of FZN, FCZN and FDZN doped in a blend of mCP (m-bis(N-carbazolylbenzene)) and polystyrene are studied.

Shedding light on octathio[8]circulene and some of its plate-like derivatives

A quantum chemical investigation is made on the recently synthesized octathio[8]circulene (C16S8), an exotic molecule, the first fully heterocyclic circulene, from the structural and electronic properties and some charge-transport parameters viewpoints. Since the molecule consists of eight thiophene rings fused together, we have chosen to compare it with the acyclic (octathienoacene) analogue and to some relatives thereof, in which the sulfur atoms are substituted by Se, NH, CH2 and O. C16S8, C16Se8 and C16S4Se4 are found to show a low reorganization energy comparable or lower than that for already well known field-effect transistor (FET) materials, a promising property which, combined to some others revealed by this study, makes these compounds potential candidates for FET use. In addition, the twist angle is found to be tightly linked to the peripheral bonds lengths, the least twisted structures showing the most interesting properties for organic FET use.

Computational studies of modified [Fe 3S 4] clusters: Why iron is optimal

This work reports density functional computations of metal-substituted models of biological [Fe 3S 4] clusters in oxidation states [MFe 2S 4] +/0/−1 (M = Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, and Mo). Geometry optimization with a dielectric screening model is shown to provide a substantial improvement in structure, compared to earlier used standard procedures. The error for average Fe–S bonds decreased from 0.038 Å to 0.016 Å with this procedure. Four density functionals were compared, B3LYP, BP86, TPSS, and TPSSh. B3LYP and to a lesser extent TPSSh energies were inconsistent with experiment for the oxidized [Fe 3S 4] + cluster. BP86 (and to a slightly lesser extent TPSS) was within expected theoretical and experimental uncertainties for all oxidation states, the only qualitative error being 5 kJ/mol in favor of the M S = 3/2 configuration for the [Fe 3S 4] + cluster, so BP86 was used for quantitative results. Computed reorganization energies and reduction potentials point directly towards the [Fe 3S 4] cluster as the superior choice of electron carrier, with the [ZnFe 2S 4] cluster a close second. In addition, partially and fully Mo-substituted clusters were investigated and found to have very low reorganization energies but too negative reduction potentials. The results provide a direct rationale why any substitution weakens the cluster as an electron carrier, and thus why the [Fe 3S 4] composition is optimal in the biological clusters.

Synthesis, Ionisation Potentials and Electron Affinities of Hexaazatrinaphthylene Derivatives

Several hexaazatrinaphthylene derivatives and a tris(thieno)hexaazatriphenylene derivative have been synthesised by reaction of the appropriate diamines with hexaketocyclohexane. The crystal structure of 2,3,8,9,14,15-hexachloro-5,6,11,12,17,18-hexaazatrinaphthylene has been determined by X-ray diffraction; this reveals a molecular structure in good agreement with that predicted by density functional theory (DFT) calculations and pi-stacking with an average spacing between adjacent molecular planes of 3.18 A. Solid-state ionisation potentials have been measured by using UV photoelectron spectroscopy and fall in the range of 5.99 to 7.76 eV, whereas solid-state electron affinities, measured using inverse photoelectron spectroscopy, vary in the range -2.65 to -4.59 eV. The most easily reduced example is a tris(thieno)hexaazatriphenylene substituted with bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl groups; DFT calculations suggest that the highly exothermic electron affinity is due both to the replacement of the outermost phenylene rings of hexaazatrinaphthylene with thieno groups and to the presence of electron-withdrawing bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl groups. The rather exothermic electron affinities, the potential for adopting pi-stacked structures and the low intramolecular reorganisation energies obtained by DFT calculations suggest that some of these molecules may be useful electron-transport materials.

Reorganization Energy of the CuA Center in Purple Azurin: Impact of the Mixed Valence-to-Trapped Valence State Transition

Mixed valence (MV) coordination compounds play important roles in redox reactions in chemistry and biology. Details of the contribution of a mixed valence state to protein electron transfer (ET) reactivity such as reorganization energy, however, have not been experimentally defined. Herein we report measurements of reorganization energies of a binuclear CuA center engineered into Pseudomonas aeruginosa azurin that exhibits a reversible transition between a totally delocalized MV state at pH 8.0 and a trapped valence (TV) state at pH 4.0. The reorganization energy of a His120Ala variant of CuA azurin that displays a TV state at both the above pH values has also been determined. We found that the MV-to-TV state transition increases the reorganization energy by 0.18 eV, providing evidence that the MV state of the CuA center has lower reorganization energy than its TV counterpart. We have also shown that lowering the pH from 8.0 to 4.0 results in a similar (approximately 0.4 eV) decrease in reorganization energy for both blue (type 1) and purple (CuA) azurins, even though the reorganization energies of the two different copper centers are different at a given pH. These results suggest that the MV state plays only a secondary role in modulation of the ET reactivity via the reorganization energy, as compared to that of the driving force.

Nitrogen-Rich Oligoacenes: Candidates for n-Channel Organic Semiconductors

The successive replacement of CH moieties by nitrogen atoms in oligoacenes (benzene to hexacene) has been studied computationally at the B3LYP/6-311+G(d,p)//6-31G(d) level of theory, and the effects of different heteroatomic substitution patterns on structures, electron affinities, excitation, ionization, and reorganization energies are discussed. The calculated tendencies are rationalized on the basis of molecular orbital arguments. To achieve electron affinities of 3 eV, a value required to allow for efficient electron injection from common metal electrodes, at least seven nitrogen atoms have to be incorporated into tetracenes or pentacenes. The latter require rather small reorganization energies for electron transfer (<0.20 eV) making these compounds promising candidates for n-channel semiconducting materials. Particularly interesting are heptaazapentacenes 5 and 6 in which the nitrogen atoms are arranged to form self-complementary systems with a maximum number of intermolecular CH-N contacts in planar oligomers. These interactions are expected to facilitate the formation of graphite-like sheet structures with cofacial arrangements of the pi systems and short interlayer distances due to attractive N-C(H) interlayer interactions. This should not only be ideal for charge transfer but also might contribute to improved air stability of these semiconductors. Self-complementarity is maintained in azaacenes containing two cyano groups in the terminal rings. These compounds require lower reorganization energies than the unsubstituted heterocycles (0.13-0.14 eV), show high electron affinities (3.3 eV), and are thus promising candidates for materials applications.