Lower Middle Income Group Research Articles

Comparative Analysıs of Out-Of-Pocket Health Expenditure Across Countries of Different Income Groups

The objective of this study is to conduct a comparative analysis of the proportion of out-of-pocket health expenditures (OOPHE) in total health expenditure for countries across various income groups. The study utilizes data from the World Bank database between 2010 and 2019, compiled and analyzed in Excel. In 2019, there was a 4% increase in the low-income group, an 18% increase in the lower middle-income group, a 63% increase in the upper middle-income group, and a 36% increase in the high-income group when compared to the year 2010. When OOPHE per capita is analysed separately, we can observe that the high-income countries group has the highest expenditure (14%), but it is the group with the lowest share in total health expenditures. Given higher levels of out-of-pocket health expenditures in low- and lower-middle-income countries, significant disparities are apparent among income groups. To ensure more equitable access to healthcare, countries must reduce financial burdens on individuals by understanding the distinctions and implementing appropriate policies.

The Disconnect Between Policy Makers And Researchers – Time To Build Bridges

<p>According to World Health Organization, Pakistan and Afghanistan are the last bastions of Poliomyelitis. Rest of the world has become Polio Free. They achieved this freedom after becoming part of Polio Eradication Initiative which was created in 1988 just after the World Health Assembly resolved to eradicate Polio Myelitis from the globe. The woes of Pakistan do not end here. According to “Health Financing Progress Matrix Assessment Pakistan 2023. Summary of findings and recommendations” by World Health Organization, the service coverage index of Pakistan despite showing a consistent surge over the years was still significantly lower with a score of 45 against an average of 58 amongst the low middle income group countries in year 2021. This calls for a need to revisit our strategic policy making in all spheres of life but especially in health and health education. Dr Vaqar Ahmed in <a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/pakistans-agenda-for-economic-reforms-9780199406050?cc=au&lang=en&">Pakistan’s Agenda of Economic Reforms</a>, identified that this country faces a serious and lingering lack of institutional arrangement within our framework for research-based policy formulation, and post implementation feedback.</p>

Long-term effects of some determinants in the agricultural sector on CO2 emissions: Panel data analysis by income groups of world countries

Climate change is defined as one of the biggest problems of the third millennium. All countries in the world are striving to produce policies on this issue and achieve a common consensus. Regulations are being made in various sectors and efforts are continuing to adopt ecofriendly production techniques. Just as climate change affects all sectors, it is also affected by the production activities of the sectors. One of these sectors is the agricultural sector. Inputs and production techniques used in agriculture create direct environmental costs. The production techniques used by countries depending on their income level and development level contribute to the climate change process to a certain extent. In this research, the effects of the inputs used in agricultural production on CO2 emissions according to the income levels of the countries of the world were investigated by panel data analysis. According to the results obtained, the effect of the arable land size of low and low-middle income group countries, the pesticides they use in agriculture, the animal fertilizers they use in agricultural production, the CO2 level released from the energy they use in agriculture, and the effect of their agricultural nitrogen use on the total CO2 level is statistically significant. While the effect of pesticide uses and the amount of nitrogen used in agriculture by middle-high income countries is statistically significant, it can be said that the amounts of pesticides used by high-income countries in agriculture, animal fertilizers used in agricultural production, the level of CO2 released from the energy they use in agriculture and their use of agricultural nitrogen are statistically significant. While the results obtained reveal the relationship between the amount used and CO2 emissions, they also indicate that the inputs used can be quality and environmentally friendly inputs. In classical suggestions, suggestions are made such as controlling input levels and preventing excessive use. However, the increasing world population and the resulting increase in nutritional needs emphasize the importance of optimal input use in agricultural production. It makes it important that qualitative, ecofriendly and effective inputs should be used rather than input usage possibilities and quantity-dimensional control.

Economic Complexity, Institutions, and Property Rights

Objectives/Background: Property rights play a fundamental role in economics through rights to asset and resource owners, thereby enhancing their economic efficiency. The study investigates the relationship between property rights and economic complexity across countries classified by income levels, including high, middle, and low-income nations. Methods: The study utilized Robust Least Square (RLS) to obtain results from a secondary data set. Results: Our analysis reveals a positive relation between economic complexity and property rights across all income groups. It is suggested to have potential developmental paths for countries based on their income status such as those of low income and middle income groups. More specifically, it is proposes that low-income countries could benefit from the institutional improvements observed in high middle-income countries group. Whereas, high middle-income countries may find help in modeling their institutions after those of high-income countries. The approaches may help sustain and enhance institutions and foster an environment conducive to economic complexity. Conclusion: This research contributes valuable insights into the interplay between economic complexity and property rights across diverse income contexts, offering potential strategies for policymakers to enhance property rights and drive inclusive economic development.

River flood risk assessment for the Chinese road network

Frequent floods substantially impact transportation infrastructure. This study assesses river flood risk to Chinese road networks by expected annual damage (EAD) and expected annual network efficiency loss (EAEL). The results show that the EAD of Chinese roads under river floods ranges from 2.04 to 3.42 billion USD, and the EAEL of 366 cities ranges from 0 to 31.0‰. The EAD high-risk cities are concentrated in areas of frequent flooding with high road network densities, while EAEL high-risk cities have relatively sparse roads and a high percentage of failed nodes and edges under river floods. For different income groups, the average EAD is the highest in the high income group, while EAD relative to the GDP and EAEL are the highest in the low and lower middle income groups, respectively, placing greater financial pressure on local governments. Our study provides an integrated view for assessing and managing road flood risk.

Alt ve orta gelir grubuna yönelik Türkiye toplu konut uygulamalarında karşılaşılan sorunlar üzerine bir inceleme

Turkey has undergone a rapid change with the urbanization processes, and accordingly, different forms of housing production have emerged in the cities. The establishment of the Mass Housing Administration and the granting of powers to local governments to build houses are the most significant steps taken to solve the housing problem for people in the lower-middle income group. This study presents research that focuses on mass housing implemented by TOKİ and local governments and includes especially user satisfaction, post-use evaluation and current situation analysis. In line with the established content, the problems in mass housing were determined by literature review and the problems caused by construction phase were also added to the study. At this point, problems related to physical space characteristics, environmental problems, aesthetic problems, and social problems caused by housing have been investigated. Subjects covered separately in many different studies have been transformed into a common data pool within the scope of this study. It is predicted that the data to be obtained from this data pool will be a valuable resource in terms of transforming the design parameters for further studies and being a base for the solution of existing problems.

The impact of forestation and renewable energy utilisation on environmental efficiency in Africa

Achieving carbon neutrality is a tedious challenge confronting African countries that have witnessed mounting environmental degradation. Renewable energy consumption (REC) and forestation play a critical role in dealing with the situation. Therefore, to address this concern, this study assesses the dynamic energy or environmental efficiency of 43 sampled African countries by proffering a new dynamic meta-frontier DEA model from 2010 to 2018. The bootstrap truncation regression model investigates the influence of forestation and REC on environmental efficiency in Africa. The dynamic environmental efficiency of the 43 concerned African countries is low (0.59), indicating vast room for improvement. The heterogeneity of dynamic environmental efficiency across the income groups is evident. The upper-middle-income group (UMIG) had the best performance, followed by the low-middle-income group (LMIG) and the low-income group (LIG). The technology gap ratio also confirmed the existence of a huge gap across the income groups in Africa. The bootstrap truncation regression results confirmed a U-shaped relationship between economic growth and dynamic environmental efficiency in Africa. Forestation and REC positively correlate to dynamic CO2 emission and energy efficiency in Africa. In contrast, financial development is negatively associated with CO2 emissions and Africa’s energy efficiency. The study’s findings will aid the sampled African countries in their quest to attain carbon neutrality, thereby promoting sustainability on the African continent.

Adaptability in Interior Space: Public Housing for Lower-Middle Income Group in Dhaka

This research examines the spatial characteristics of domestic spaces, their use, and adaptations to analyse their changing morphology. It also examines inhabitants' preferences and requirements for the functional utilisation of the interiority of dwellings. Fifteen apartments in Dhaka were analysed to compare the initial design with the later modifications by occupants. The research followed an ethnographical method to depict the lives and experiences of individuals. The research has identified significant changes in activity zoning and their pattern, thus creating a new spatial organisation of the house that is different from the original design. Activity analysis reveals that most spaces are multipurpose; moreover, maintaining segregation and privacy is challenging. Lack of privacy is a significant concern during the alterations. Households are usually the extended type with a large number of members. Hence, this research finds the need for extra rooms within the given space. Another reason for alterations is the need for adequate functional space. A discrepancy exists between the dwelling space design and the actual needs and preferences of the occupants. This discrepancy highlights gaps between the designer's solution and the user demand, which prompts adjustments in the aspirations of the house through modifications and adaptations.

Determinants and health outcomes of trajectories of social mobility in Australia

ObjectivesTo investigate trajectories in socio-economic position (SEP) and the onset of a range of physical and mental health outcomes and commencement of treatment. MethodsThe Household Income and Labour Dynamics Australia (HILDA) study, a nationally representative prospective cohort study over the period 2001 to 2020 was used to define trajectories of SEP. Trajectories of low, low-middle, upper-middle and high SEP and decreasing (low-middle to upper-middle SEP) or increasing (upper-middle to lower-middle SEP) SEP were identified using k-longitudinal means. Cox-regression was used to assess SEP trajectories and physical (arthritis or osteoporosis, any cancer, asthma, chronic bronchitis or emphysema, Type 1 diabetes, Type 2 diabetes, hypertension or high blood pressure, and coronary heart disease), and mental health (depression or anxiety) outcomes, and treatment commencement. Predictors of SEP trajectories were also investigated using multinomial logistic regression and random forests. ResultsDecreasing SEP had a higher relative risk of new onset illness than increasing SEP for all health outcomes. Increasing SEP had relative risk estimates that were more consistent with upper-middle income groups and decreasing SEP had a relative risk consistent with lower-middle income groups. In contrast, there was no socio-economic gradient in treatment commencement for physical health outcomes, or depression or anxiety, with the exception of arthritis or osteoporosis. ConclusionDecreasing SEP was associated with poor health outcomes, and increasing SEP with better health outcomes. A range of socio-demographic and psychosocial determinants of SEP trajectories were identified to inform policy responses that could modify trajectories of health inequalities in the Australian context.

Authorship Diversity in General Surgery Related Cochrane Systematic Reviews

Background
 This study sought to determine the gender and country diversity in authorship representation in the authorship of Cochrane systematic reviews related to General Surgery.
 
 Methods
 We searched and extracted data from the Cochrane Library on 3 September 2022 using ‘keyword:General surgery’, and included published reviews, protocols, and withdrawn publications. We extracted authors’ details and searched online to determine their gender, attempting to capture at least one webpage demonstrating it. Authors whose gender could not be ascertained were excluded from gender-based analyses. For graphical representation, we used a choropleth-style map. We treated a collaborative author group belonging to a single country, e.g., MRC Clinical Trials Unit (UK), as a single author. A second author independently cross-verified the extracted data.
 
 Result
 Two hundred and fifty publications with a total of 1420 authors were included in the current study. Four authors had affiliation to two countries. The leading five represented nations (Figure 1A) in authorship were United Kingdom (n=562, 39.4%), China (n=163, 11.5%), Italy (n=144, 10.1%), Canada (n=91, 6.4%), and United States of America (n=89, 6.2%). 
 Syria is the only country among all the low-income countries which had authorship representation and constituted 0.34% (n=5) of all the authors. India (n=8, 0.6%) and Nigeria (n=2, 0.1%) were the only countries from lower-middle income groups who had representation.
 Male (n=957) to female (n=453) ratio in this study was 2.11:1 (Figure 1B). Sex data for ten authors couldn’t be retreived and were categorized as ‘unknown’ group. There were 169 (67.3%) male and 82 (32.6%) female first authors (sex ratio 2.06:1). One study had designated two authors as co-first authors. Women (n= 81) constituted 32.4% of all the corresponding authors (sex ratio 2.06:1). One article didn’t have any designated corresponding author. One hundred and fifty (60%) studies didn’t have any female representation in any lead author (corresponding or first author) position. Fifty-eight (23.2%) studies didn’t have any female authors at all, whereas in contrast there were only eight studies (3.2%) which did not have any male authors.
 
 Conclusion
 Authors from high-income countries continue to be the largest contributors to Cochrane systematic reviews in General Surgery, source of one of the highest quality evidence. There is extremely poor representation of female authors and authors from low and low-middle-income countries. Active capacity-building efforts are needed in several countries for advancing authorship diversity.

Relationship of Socioeconomic Status with Special Reference to Leucorrhoea

Leucorrhoea is a common female problem; recurrent especially in women of reproductive age that may or not be associated with vaginal infection or elevated estrogen levels. It may accompany vaginal discharge, vulvae burning and itching, low backache, pains in lower abdomen and legs, general weakness and loss of appetite. This disorder is associated with psychological, physiological and pathological problems. Objectives: To investigate nutritional status of girls having leucorrhoea. The aim of this study was nutritional health status assessment of girls of university with special reference to leucorrhoea. Methods: The volunteer girls of sample size 150 were interviewed in the study. For this study leucorrhoea is categorized into 3 group’s mild moderate and severe. Results: The volunteers were from university of Sargodha between the ages of 16-40. In this study it was observed that out of 150 volunteers 82.5% were leucorrheal and 17.33% were none leucorrheal physiological status of girls were mostly influenced by socioeconomic status like 53.33% girls belong to lower middle income group and physical activity was also a major factor for leucorrhoea like most girls with leucorrhoea have sedentary lifestyle (56.66%). Further it was notice that one of the major causes of severe leucorrhoea was constipation which affects 76.47% girls. Conclusions: Leucorrhoea can be reduce or by better our socioeconomic status eating well natural food, reduce tension of income and overcome constipation which is bone of contention. If we stay in nature the diseases will avoid us.

DÜNYADA ORTA GELİR TUZAĞI, TÜRKİYE’NİN ORTA GELİR TUZAĞINA YAKALANMA NEDENLERİ VE ÇIKIŞI İÇİN ÖNERİLER

Orta gelir seviyesinde yer alan Türkiye ekonomisi, 1955 yılında alt-orta gelir grubuna yükselmiş ve 50 yıl boyunca bu grupta yer almıştır. Yıllar içinde birçok yönden gelişme gösteren Türkiye ekonomisinde 2005 yılında bir kırılma meydana gelmiş ve kişi başı gelir açısından incelendiğinde üst orta gelir seviyesine yükseldiği görülmüştür. Özellikle bu yükselme sonrasında Türkiye’nin yüksek gelirli ülkelerin kişi başı gelir düzeyine ulaşıp ulaşamayacağı tartışma konusu olmuştur. Yıllar itibariyle incelendiğinde dünya ekonomisindeki gelişmelere bağlı olarak 2012 yılından sonra Türkiye ekonomisinde büyüme performansının yavaşlamaya başlaması, orta gelir tuzağı yönündeki problemlerin güncel konular arasında yer almasına neden olmuştur. Dolayısıyla orta gelir tuzağına yakalanmadan yüksek gelirli ülkeler grubuna yükselen ülkeler ile üst-orta gelir grubundan yüksek gelirli ülkeler grubuna yükselen ülkelerin bu başarıyı nasıl sağladıkları, Türkiye ekonomisi açısından büyük önem taşımaktadır. Bu bağlamda Türkiye ekonomisinin orta gelir tuzağı riski altında olup olmadığı bir takım sosyal ve ekonomik veriler ışığında incelenecek, orta gelir tuzağı riskinden sakınmak için bazı stratejiler açıklanacaktır.

Testing non-linear effect of urbanization on environmental degradation: Cross-country evidence

The contribution of structural transformation and urban development is considered crucial for the long run socio-economic growth but has adversely affected environmental sustainability over last few decades. This empirical research makes an innovative and holistic addition to the prior literature by examining the non-linear effect of economic growth and urban dynamics on environmental degradation in a comprehensive panel data of 66 countries and across respective income groups for the period 1990–2016. For empirical analysis, the robust econometric methods of two-way fixed effects (2W-FE), panel fully modified ordinary least squares (PFMOLS), and Driscoll-Kraay regressions have been applied to account for all econometric issues. The study unveils the bell-shaped effect of economic growth on environmental degradation which confirms the Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) and structural change hypotheses. The results of this study signifies the inverted U influence of urbanization and urban agglomerations on CO2 emissions and hence supports Ecological Modernization Theory (EMT). Our empirical findings also unfold the heterogeneous non-linear effects of urban dynamics across various income categories of selected economies. By employing the heterogeneous Dumitrescu and Hurlin (D-H) (Granger non-causality tests), the findings of this study confirm the prior estimations and establish significant unilateral and bilateral causal nexus of structural change and urban dynamics with environmental degradation. By verifying the existence of Environmental Kuznets Curve phenomenon in Low and Lower Middle Income (LLMI) and Upper Middle Income (UMI) group countries, this study necessitates for the policy makers to adopt the eco-friendly industrial and energy policies for the long run social, economic and environmental sustainability.

FDI outflows and international trade nexus: Empirical evidence from country income groups

Relevance. Outward foreign direct investment (OFDI) and international trade are traditionally viewed as key drive of economic integration and globalization. At the same time, the relationship between these phenomena is ambiguous both from theoretical and empirical points of view. This study contributes to the existing literature by analyzing the relationship between outward foreign direct investment and international trade for countries with different levels of income per capita. Research objective. This study examines the dynamic interplay between OFDI and international trade in different income groups such as low-income (LIC), low-middle income (LMIC), upper-middle income (UMIC), and high-income (HIC) groups. Data and methods. Based on World bank country income classifications, data from 161 countries are divided into LIC, LMIC, UMIC, and HIC for the period 1998-2019. The study employs the Difference (DFF-GMM) and two-step System Generalized Method of Moments (SYS-GMM) techniques to explore the OFDI-trade nexus. Results. The results are mixed and significant providing support for both complementarity and substitutive FDI. Findings suggest that OFDI and trade nexus in LIC have negative impact indicating a substitutive effect, but in other economies, the impact is significantly positive and complementary. Conclusions. Trade and OFDI nexus are substitutive in LIC, hence sound economic policy, aimed at increasing country’s international competitiveness, should be adopted. However, trade and OFDI in LMIC, UMIC and HIC economies have mutually complementary relationship that facilitates the improvement of the domestic economy. Thus, government should promote policies that sustain the benefits of OFDI and trade interactions.

Does urbanization redefine the environmental Kuznets curve? An empirical analysis of 134 Countries

• The impact of urbanization on the coupling between economy and environment is non-linear. • The traditional EKC theory is extended by adding the social indicator. • Threshold regression model is applied to investigate the non-linear causality. • Comparatively analyzes the threshold regression results of four income groups. • Urbanization does not help reduce environmental pressures. The purpose of this article is to explore the impact of urbanization on the coupling of economic growth and environmental quality. The traditional environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) hypothesis explains the inverted U-shaped relationship between the economy and the environment. This study expands the traditional EKC theory by adding social indicator, which also corresponds to the three aspects (social, economic, and environmental) required for sustainable development in 2030. Based on the panel data of 134 countries from 1996 to 2015, the threshold regression model is applied to investigate the non-linear causality between the variables. The threshold variable is urbanization, and the impact mechanism of economic growth on carbon dioxide emissions and ecological footprint is tested. The results show that: urbanization strengthens the positive correlation between the economy and carbon emissions and ecological footprint. The positive effect of economic growth on the ecological footprint is greater than that of carbon emissions. Trade openness and natural resource rents increase environmental pressure. Population aging and renewable energy improve the quality of the environment. There is heterogeneity in the values and change trend of the regression coefficients of different income groups. Unlike the coefficient growth trend in the results of all countries, the following situations occur. As urbanization successively crosses the threshold, the positive effect of economic growth on carbon dioxide emissions in high income countries diminishes. The coefficient of the lower middle income group has an inverted U-shape. When the ecological footprint is the explained variable, the coefficient of the high income group becomes U-shaped.

Financial Inclusion between Financial Innovation and Economic Growth: A Study of Lower Middle Income Economies

Purpose: Financial inclusion is a key concern that has achieved much impulsion in the last two decades internationally. It has the scope of reporting of financial scheme and institutions to the underserved community in the economy. This study examined the effect of financial innovation on economic growth with the mediation of financial inclusion.
 Design/Methodology/Approach: To address the relationship researchers in this study have used measures from a dataset of low and lower middle income group economies over a sample period from 2010-2017.
 Findings: The results of this study shows that financial innovation creates opportunities for financially excluded segment of the society which results in financial inclusion that leads to economic growth of low and lower middle economies.
 Implications/Originality/Value: Study will provide new evidence that contributes new ways to improve low and lower middle economies towards economic growth by promoting financial innovation and financial inclusion.

Socio-economic variations in the clinical presentation, etiology and outcome of infective endocarditis in the ESC-EORP EURO-ENDO (European Infective Endocarditis) registry: a prospective cohort study

Abstract Background Infective endocarditis (IE) is a life threatening disease associated with high mortality and morbidity worldwide. We sought to determine how socio-economic factors may influence variations in epidemiology, clinical presentation, investigation and management (and their consequence upon clinical outcomes) in a large international multi-centre registry. Methods The ESC-EORPEURO-ENDO registry comprises a prospective cohort of 3116 adult patients admitted to 156 hospitals in 40 countries with IE between January 2016 and March 2018. We analysed the complete dataset to assess potentially important determinants of variation according to World Bank economic stratification (high income (Group 1) [73.8%]; upper-middle income (Group 2) [17.1%]; lower-middle income (Group 3)[9.1%]). Results Patients in Group 3 were younger (median age [IQR]: Group 1 - 66 [54–75] years; Group 2 - 57 [40–68] years; Group 3 - 33 [26–43] years; p<0.001) with a higher prevalence of smoking, intravenous drug use and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection (all p<0.001). Group 3 patients with IE presented later (median [IQR) days since symptom onset: Group 1 - 12 [3–35]; Group 2 - 20 [6–51]; Group 3 - 31 [12–62]; p<0.001) and were more likely to develop congestive heart failure (13.6%; 11.3%; and 22.6%, respectively; p<0.001), septic shock (8.3%; 11.1%; 13.4%; p=0.007), and persistent fever for greater than 7 days (9.6%; 14.4%; 27.9%; p<0.001) following hospital admission. Surgery was performed less frequently in Group 3 (75.4%, 76.8% and 51.3% in Groups 1, 2 and 3, respectively; p<0.001) and mortality was highest in the poorest countries (14.6%; 23.6% and 23.7%, respectively; p<0.001). Conclusion Socio-economic factors influence the clinical profile of patients presenting with IE across the world. Despite being younger, patients from the poorest countries presented with more frequent complications and higher mortality associated with delayed diagnosis and less frequent use of surgery. Funding Acknowledgement Type of funding sources: None.

ACCESS, EQUITY AND INCLUSION OF HINDI MEDIUM STUDENTS IN EDUCATION AT THE TIME OF COVID-19

This is the time when the whole world is locked down with a fear of his /her own life because of ongoing pandemic of corona virus disease 2019(COVID-19).All activities are stopped for an uncertain period. Students from K-12 or from higher education, all are stuck in home and their studies are stopped. This environment has affected their physical and mental health. For well being of all- schools, colleges and universities have taken an initiative of 'Online Learning' to educate them and lessen the loss of their studies for these academic sessions. This is a very good decision and demand of the hour as well. It is available for anyone, anytime and anywhere which is the main characteristic of Distance education itself. It gives accessibility, exibility and equity to all the learners. Now all the institutions are using online teaching learning method with their own made teaching materials, some are using OER and some are providing to the students the ready made contents to the students that are available in the market by educational content developers which are available in English medium. In this situation, Hindi medium students are facing problems related to the language of medium of instruction, lack of knowledge of handling the computers and all the latest apps suggested by the institution and also feel inferiority complex because of not being able to do the proposed work. Wittgen Ludwig said-“The limit of my language is the limit of my world” (Bialystok, 2001). In this scenario, somehow the students are trying to operate computers and latest apps but they are not getting their course content in their own language. That's why they wouldn't understand the content properly. According to Pal (2016), who study through vernacular medium, face difculty in acquiring programming knowledge in English medium of instruction and it became very difcult to cope up in international front. For progress, English is in demand. It is in use for centuries but yet it is not in reach for most of the people and perceived as a killer of native and indigenous languages…GOI, 2007 (Ramanujam,2011) Here the researchers wants to emphasis on distance learners who are studying through Hindi medium and who have completed their schooling from Hindi medium government school. Mostly they belong to low or lower middle income groups who can't afford costly computers at home nor they have proper computer training. That's why they are not technically procient to handle all the apps and understand the course content. In this study the researchers wanted to bring in notice the problems of Hindi medium students who also want to study at home in this crucial time but due to many constraints they are unable to do the same. In this study narrative review method will be used to examine the socio economic, psychological and language related problems of those students and try to nd out possible solution of the problem. Although this study is focusing on Hindi Medium Students but covers broader arena and relates to all the students who are studying or studied in mother tongue/ vernacular/ regional languages.

Global costs of protecting against sea-level rise at 1.5 to 4.0 °C

Sea levels will rise, even with stringent climate change mitigation. Mitigation will slow the rate of rise. There is limited knowledge on how the costs of coastal protection vary with alternative global warming levels of 1.5 to 4.0 °C. Analysing six sea-level rise scenarios (0.74 to 1.09 m, 50th percentile) across these warming levels, and five Shared Socioeconomic Pathways, this paper quantifies the economic costs of flooding and protection due to sea-level rise using the Dynamic Interactive Vulnerability Assessment (DIVA) modelling framework. Results are presented for World Bank income groups and five selected countries from the present to 2100. Annual sea flood damage costs without additional adaptation are more influenced by socio-economic development than sea-level rise, indicating that there are opportunities to control risk with development choices. In contrast, annual sea dike investment costs are more dependent on the magnitude of sea-level rise. In terms of total costs with adaptation, upper middle, low middle and low income groups are projected to have higher relative costs as a proportion of GDP compared with high income groups. If low income countries protected now, flood costs could be reduced after 2050 and beyond. However, without further adaptation, their coasts will experience growing risks and costs leaving them increasingly reliant on emergency response measures. Without mitigation or adaptation, greater inequalities in damage costs between income groups could result. At country level, annual sea flood damage costs without additional adaptation are projected to rapidly increase with approximately 0.2 m of sea-level rise, leaving limited time to plan and adapt.

Troika of Trade Openness, Poverty and Income Inequality: Empirical Evidence from Lower and Middle Income Countries

The current study investigates the relationship among trade openness, poverty and income inequality in the developing economies classified as lower and middle income countries. Kao and Fisher cointegration tests are employed to see the long-run equilibrium relationship among the variables. Panel cointegration regression is employed to calculate the magnitude of variables through FMOLS and DOLS techniques. The results demonstrate that interaction of these three variables differ for income groups of countries, however, trade openness and poverty increase income inequality in both groups. Similarly, income inequality decreases trade openness in both lower income and middle income groups of the economies. Trade openness increases poverty in lower income countries only. Poverty increases income inequality in lower income countries but in middle income countries it decreases trade openness. In the control variables the financial development has shown encouraging effect on trade openness in lower and middle income countries. GDP growth has shown positive impact on income inequality in lower income countries but negative impact in middle income countries. As trade openness has discoursing effect so the economies should carefully deal with the implications through proper policy framework.