Lower Engadine Research Articles

Rapid advance of climatic tree limits in the Eastern Alps explained by on-site temperatures

In the European Alps, mean temperature has risen by 2.5 K since the end of the nineteenth century. A 2 K warming of the growing season has taken place in the last 4 decades only. The 2.5 K warming should rise the position of the climatic treeline by about 400 m. Actual shifts in uppermost tree positions reported here for the Austrian Defereggen Valley and the Swiss Lower Engadine region of the Eastern Alps reach only around 140 m of elevation above the limit of old trees that date back to the nineteenth century. Uppermost Pinus cembra trees of > 2 m height currently occur at c. 2500 m, representing elevation records for the Eastern Alps. In situ temperature records for 2022–2023 revealed seasonal mean temperatures for uppermost trees that are 1–3 K higher than the equilibrium treeline isotherm of c. 6 °C in both regions (corrected for temperature anomalies from long-term records). The 2 K span reflects microhabitat differences and two ways to define the season. Thus, tree advances lag behind the upslope shift of the treeline isotherm, on average, by more than 200 m. The uppermost trees currently grow under quite warm conditions with annual shoot length increments frequently reaching 20 cm. Even without additional future warming, the new steady-state climatic treeline will exceed the Holocene maximum elevation in the Eastern Alps substantially.

@llegra: a chatbot for Vallader

AbstractExtinct and endangered languages have been preserved primarily through audio conservation and the collection and digitization of scripts and have been promoted through targeted language acquisition efforts. Another possibility would be to build conversational agents like chatbots or voice assistants that can master these languages. This would provide an artificial, active conversational partner which has knowledge of the vocabulary and grammar and allows one to learn with it in a different way. The chatbot, @llegra, with which one can communicate in the Rhaeto-Romanic idiom Vallader was developed in 2023 based on GPT-4. It can process and output text and has voice output. It was additionally equipped with a manually created knowledge base. After laying the conceptual groundwork, this paper presents the preparation and implementation of the project. In addition, it summarizes the tests that native speakers conducted with the chatbot. A critical discussion elaborates advantages and disadvantages. @llegra could be a new tool for teaching and learning Vallader in a memorable and entertaining way through dialog. It not only masters the idiom, but also has extensive knowledge about the Lower Engadine, that is, the area where Vallader is spoken. In conclusion, it is argued that conversational agents are an innovative approach to promoting and preserving languages.

Importance of Cultural Ecosystem Services for Cultural Identity and Wellbeing in the Lower Engadine, Switzerland

Current climate and environmental changes have brought unprecedented rates of change to mountain ecosystems. These changes are impacting the provisioning of ecosystem services. Despite the increase in academic publications on ecosystem services, research on cultural ecosystem services (CES) and their availability in mountain regions has largely been neglected. Here we analyse how important different CES are for inhabitants and visitors in the Lower Engadine region (Switzerland). We use questionnaires and maps to identify the most important CES for individual and collective wellbeing as well as their geographical location in the region. We had 48 participants in this study of which 28 grew up in the Lower Engadine. Our results show that the most important (i.e., ‘Highly important’) CES are: ‘The view of mountains, rivers or glaciers’; the presence of plants typical for the region, for example Fire Lily and Edelweiss (i.e., Lilium bulbiliferum subsp. croceum, Edelweiss-Leontopodium alpinum); ‘Hiking’; ‘Local customs’; ‘Watching large mammals’; and the importance of ‘Terraces for traditional Agriculture activities’. Results from the spatial analysis show that identical geographical locations in the Lower Engadine provide multiple CES and bring health benefits to the users.

Risk factors for chronic perforating skin lesions in the area of the digits in cattle on Swiss alpine pastures

Diseases of the digits often occur in cattle on larger cattle mountain pastures. In the late spring 2020, at the time of the ascent of 1554 cattle to 11 high altitude alpine pastures in the Lower Engadine region, lesions in the area of the digits were clinically assessed and documented. 254 cattle were of non-cantonal and 1300 of local origin (Lower Engadine; postal code CH-75XX). Skin lesions in the area of the digits, identified as digital dermatitis (DD; Mortellaro's disease), were further classified according to the DD scoring system. Nonspecific skin lesions with clinical evidence of granulation tissue formation were termed chronic penetrating skin lesions (CPSL). At the end of the alpine pasturing season, in the early fall (descent of cattle from the alpine pastures), the procedure was repeated, and biopsies were taken from randomly selected cattle with CPSL. Digital dermatitis lesions were found in 34 of 1551 cattle at ascent, but no case of CPSL was found at that time. At descent, 19 of 1529 cattle had DD lesions and 88 cattle had CPSL. The clinical appearance of the CPSL was consistent with chronic skin lesions caused by penetrating skin lacerations. Histologically, the majority of the CPSL were classified as chronic hyperplastic dermatitis with granulation tissue formation. In all CPSL biopsies examined by PCR, Fusobacterium necrophorum and Porphyromonas levii, but neither Dichelobacter nodosus nor the tested Treponema species were detected. Fluorescence in situ hybridization revealed a negative result for Treponema species in all biopsies. In the regression analysis, cattle in the age group of 365 to 730 days had an increased risk for the presence of CPSL compared to the age group of 160 to 365 days (odds ratio (OR) = 4,95; confidence interval (CI) = 1,97-12,43). Holstein cattle had an increased risk of developing CPSL compared to Brown cattle (OR = 2,92; CI = 1,46-5,86) and cattle of non-cantonal origin showed a massively higher risk compared to local cattle (OR = 10,59; CI = 5,79 - 19,37). The statistically significant associations found in the present study can be taken into account in the selection of animals for summer pasturing on high altitudes in the future in order to reduce the prevalence of CPSL and consequently reduce the antimicrobial use. Spread of DD during the alpine pasturing season within the cattle groups examined was not found.

Photo Story - Cultural landscapes of the Lower Engadine, Switzerland

Photo Story - Cultural landscapes of the Lower Engadine, Switzerland

Watching the Swiss: A network approach to rural and exurban public transport

Public transport in rural and exurban areas faces major challenges, with low population densities making it difficult to provide high-quality, high-occupancy services. While demand-responsive transport is sometimes prescribed as an innovative strategy for service provision, the network planning approach to public transport suggests that integrated timed-transfer or pulse timetable networks should be explored first. This paper examines the rural network approach using examples from Switzerland, which has among the highest rates of public transport use in Western Europe, as well as nationally-coordinated Taktfahrplan scheduling that extends deep into rural areas. The basic Swiss pulse timetabling technique is reviewed, along with the application of the approach to a remote rural case study in Graubünden’s Lower Engadine and Val Müstair. Characteristics of pulse timetable networks and the wider rural network approach are considered, drawing broad lessons for their potential application elsewhere.

Neolithic to Bronze Age (4850–3450 cal. BP) fire management of the Alpine Lower Engadine landscape (Switzerland) to establish pastures and cereal fields

Agro-pastoral activities in the past act as environmental legacy and have shaped the current cultural landscape in the European Alps. This study reports about prehistoric fire incidents and their impact on the flora and vegetation near the village of Ardez in the Lower Engadine Valley (Switzerland) since the Late Neolithic Period. Pollen, charcoal particles and non-pollen palynomorphs preserved in the Saglias and Cutüra peat bog stratigraphies were quantified and the results compared with the regional archaeological evidence. Anthropogenic deforestation using fire started around 4850 cal. BP at Saglias and aimed at establishing first cultivated crop fields (e.g. cereals) and small pastoral areas as implied by the positive correlation coefficients between charcoal particles and cultural and pastoral pollen indicators, as well as spores of coprophilous fungi. Pressure on the natural environment by humans and livestock continued until 3650 cal. BP and was followed by reforestation processes until 3400 cal. BP because of climatic deterioration. Thereafter, a new, continuous cultivation/pastoral phase was recorded for the Middle to Late Bronze Age (3400–2800 cal. BP). After rather minor human impact during the Iron Age and Roman Period, intensive agriculture was recorded for the Medieval Period. The area around Ardez was used for crop cultivation from about 1000 cal. BP until the start of the ‘Little Ice Age’ (600 cal. BP). Despite a land-use reorganisation, the following gradual decrease in agricultural activities led to the extant mixture of a cultivated, grazed and forested landscape in the Lower Engadine. In addition, this study demonstrates the excellent value of the fungus Gelasinospora as a highly local marker of past and today’s fire incidents, as well as of the use of micro-charcoals from pollen slides and macro-charcoals (>150 µm) from pollen sample residues for the reconstruction of short- and long-term fire histories.

High impact: early pastoralism and environmental change during the Neolithic and Bronze Age in the Silvretta Alps (Switzerland/Austria) as evidenced by archaeological, palaeoecological and pedological proxies

The beginnings of the continuous human presence and of pastoral activities in the high mountainous region of Central Europe have recently become a frequently discussed topic in both archaeology and palaeoecology. In extreme environments such as the high Alpine main ridge and adjacent areas, highly adaptive subsistence strategies were required to exploit natural resources available in the subalpine and alpine zones. Such strategies were determined by changing environmental, social, and economic conditions. To investigate the relationships between settlement dynamics, human impact, and Holocene climatic changes, we studied the valleys of the Silvretta Massif in the central Eastern Alps between the Paznaun (Austria) and Lower Engadine valleys (Switzerland). We are presenting new archaeological, palaeoecological, and pedological evidence of continuous human activities from the Early Neolithic Period to the Bronze Age (~ 5,500–800 BC). This evidence sheds new light on the beginnings of intensified human impact on the high mountainous landscape, i.e. activities beyond Mesolithic hunting along the timberline. Archaeological data suggest a shift in subsistence strategies from hunting to herding at the end of the Neolithic Period (~ 2,800–2,500 BC). While palaeoecological data confirm this trend, they also indicate potentially earlier human and livestock impact through forest clearances by fire and grazing from about 4,200 BC onwards. In addition to archaeological sites and peat bogs, soils in high-altitude regions prove to be appropriate archives indicating former vegetation cover, shifts of timberline altitudes as well as disturbance of soil formation by human activity such as by slash-and-burn and by livestock grazing.

Recent Evolution of Debris-Flow Fans in the Central Swiss ALPS and Associated Risk Assessment: Two Examples in Roseg Valley

This paper reports the results of research carried out in the Roseg Valley (Lower Engadine, Switzerland) that examines debris-flow fan typology, debris-flow activity, and the impact of debris flows on forest vegetation. Depositional landforms from debris flows were subdivided according to their degree of geomorphological hazard. An inventory of debris-flow fans and a detailed geomorphological, vegetational, and dendrochronological study of two of them was undertaken. The dendrochronological analysis allowed dating of historical events and reconstruction of their recent evolution. By dating scars and growth anomalies on Larix decidua Mill. and Pinus cembra L., 24 debris-flow events were identified on the Misaun fan and 16 on the Tschierva fan, and differences in their distribution due to drainage basin characteristics identified. Fans chosen for this investigation are crossed by a hiking trail that is frequently used by tourists during the summer season. A qualitative hazard and risk evaluation were undertaken. This approach contributes to hazard assessment on fans, and may also be applied in other environmental contexts (e.g., in trail planning).

Carbogaseous spring waters, coldwater geysers and dry CO2 exhalations in the tectonic window of the Lower Engadine Valley, Switzerland

In the region of Scuol-Tarasp in the Lower Engadine Valley in the Eastern Swiss Alps, there are a variety of phenomena related to a geogenetic CO2 production, including carbogaseous mineral springs, previously active coldwater geysers and dry gas exhalations from the ground via mofettes. Previous isotopic studies revealed that the CO2 originates from the metamorphic decomposition of carbonate rocks in the crust. This paper presents an inventory of the springs, geysers and mofettes, and proposes a conceptual model on the regional gas and water circulation. Based on hydrochemical criteria, it was possible to identify six main groups of spring waters, three of which are carbogaseous mineral springs. Most of the carbogaseous springs and gas exhalations are bound to the Bündnerschiefer fractured aquifer. The different water types originate from mixing of groundwater and highly mineralised carbogaseous fluids from depth. Near-surface degassing of CO2 from the fluid phase creates the dry gas exhalations. CO2 and radon measurements in 178 soil boreholes suggest that the gas exhalations occur at a limited number of point-like anomalies, and there is no evidence for regionally important diffuse CO2 discharges from the ground.

Petrogenesis and geotectonic setting of ultramafic rocks in the Eastern Alps: constraints from geochemistry

In the Eastern Alps, a heterogeneous pile of Pre-Mesozoic and Mesozoic nappes was emplaced during several distinct orogenic events. Ultramafic rocks are preserved in: (1) Pre-Mesozoic basement units of the Penninic Tauern Window and in Austroalpine basement complexes, and (2) in Mesozoic units within Penninic windows and in overlying Austroalpine segments. Geochemical data (major, trace and rare earth elements, REE, of bulk rock samples) of ultramafic rocks from 18 regions covering all the major tectonic units are presented. Metamorphic olivine-rich and clinopyroxene-rich ultramafic rocks and serpentinites from the Cambro-Ordovician Lower Schist cover units of the Tauern Window (Stubach Group, “Greiner Series”) are grouped into peridotites (#Mg values=molecular 100×Mg/(Mg+Fe tot), 87–92; <2 wt.% Al 2O 3) and clinopyroxene-rich pyroxenites (#Mg=80–92; 1–3 wt.% Al 2O 3). Major and trace element characteristics indicate a residual origin of most peridotites as restites after 10–20% partial melting. Most probably, the pyroxenites are crystal segregates from a basaltic melt in a mantle transition zone. Small lenses of completely serpentinised ultramafic rocks in the Cambrian Habach Group (#Mg=90–92) also have residual character, although they are strongly metasomatised. The Stubach and Habach Groups developed in a back arc and volcanic arc setting, respectively, along the northern margin of Gondwana. Metamorphic harzburgite and dunite (#Mg=89–90; 0.5–2.4 wt.% Al 2O 3) veined by metagabbroic dikes were sampled in the Austroalpine Silvretta nappe (Hochnörderer). The harzburgites represent restites after 12% partial melting in suboceanic mantle, most probably during the Cambrian. In the Austroalpine basement east of the Tauern Window, metamorphosed ultramafic rocks occur in association with amphibolite and eclogite in the Proterozoic (about 750 Ma) Speik Complex. Harzburgite and dunite (#Mg=89–92; 0.1–0.8 wt.% Al 2O 3) are highly depleted in incompatible elements (2.6–35 ppb Yb) and are interlayered with small amounts of more fertile peridotite (amphibole-rich harzburgite and lherzolite, #Mg=89; up to 3.0 wt.% Al 2O 3), metaclinopyroxenite (#Mg∼85) and hornblendite. Coarse-grained orthopyroxenite (#Mg=89–92; 0.5–0.7 wt.% Al 2O 3; 19–36 ppb Yb) is present as veins and stocks in the harzburgite–dunite sequence. Chondrite-normalised rare earth element patterns of harzburgite–dunite and orthopyroxenite are characteristically U-shaped. The geochemical data indicate that harzburgites and some dunites are products of multiple melting events. They can be modelled as restites after 20–30% partial melting from already depleted mantle in a suprasubduction zone geotectonic setting. Orthopyroxenites crystallised from high-(Si, Mg) melts with a significant crustal component, probably during a Cambrian subduction event. In Mesozoic units of the Penninic windows (Lower Engadine, Tauern and Rechnitz windows), serpentinised ultramafic rocks of harzburgitic composition (#Mg=90–92; 1.1–2.0 wt.% Al 2O 3) are associated with metagabbro, metabasalt, radiolarite and ophicarbonate. Furthermore, serpentinised lherzolites (#Mg=88–90; 2.9–4.6 wt.% Al 2O 3) are exposed in the Matrei Zone (a tectonic mélange zone between Penninic and Austroalpine nappes), in the Lower Austroalpine Reckner Complex and in a body of unclear tectonic affiliation at the southern margin of the Lower Engadine Window at Nauders. The harzburgites are residual mantle left behind after 10–15% partial melting of a fertile source, and form part of the Mesozoic (Jurassic) incomplete ophiolite sequences of the Ligurian–Piemontais ocean. The lherzolites, having experienced less than 10% partial melting, are either attributable to an early (Permian) rifting episode during break-up of Pangaea, or represent subcontinental mantle from the Adria plate tectonically incorporated into the Neo-Tethys.

Landschaftsentwicklungs-Konzept und Revitalisierung der Inn-Aue San Niclà-Strada, Unterengadin, Kanton Graubünden, Schweiz

Landschaftsentwicklungs-Konzept und Revitalisierung der Inn-Aue San Niclà-Strada, Unterengadin, Kanton Graubünden, Schweiz

Formation of Alpine mylonites and pseudotachylytes at the base of the Silvretta nappe, Eastern Alps

Optical microscopy and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) have been used to investigate deformation-induced microstructures in Alpine pseudotachylytes, mylonites and ultramylonites from the Upper Austro-Alpine Silvretta nappe at the southwestern margin of the Lower Engadine Window in the Eastern Alps of Switzerland and Austria. The earliest Alpine stage of deformation (D1) produced mylonitic gneisses, with dislocation glide being the dominant deformation mechanism in quartz. In the second stage (D2a), mylonites were formed as a result of strain softening in quartz (manifest by dynamic recrystallization and a lattice preferred orientation). TEM observations are used to characterize the initial stages of migration and rotation recrystallization. Pseudotachylytes were generated during D 2b when strain hardening due to dislocation tangling was not outweighed by strain softening. Several generations of mylonites and pseudotachylytes are observed. A model for the propagation of seismic fractures, initiated in comparatively rigid amphibolites, into an otherwise ductile environment is proposed for the pseudotachylytes. As such they are formed as transient discontinuities in the mylonites. D 1 and D 2a/b are related to the Eo-Alpine detachment of the Silvretta nappe. Subsequent Eo-Alpine metamorphism in the investigated area reached the stilpnomelane zone, and this coincided with the development of ultramylonites from both the mylonites and pseudotachylytes during D 3 and peak metamorphism. The increased temperature combined with fluid infiltration from the overridden Penninic strata favoured grain-boundary sliding (superplasticity) as the dominant deformation mechanism during D 3.

The Lower Engadine Window: sediment deposition and accretion in relation to the plate-tectonic evolution of the Eastern Alps

The Lower Engadine Window comprises a weakly metamorphosed, heterogeneous mixture of continental fragments and oceanic ophiolites embedded in a disrupted mass of deep-sea sediments ranging from the mid-Jurassic to the Early Eocene, mostly turbidites. Its geological features are reviewed in the light of recent research and its relationships with other Penninic outcrops in the Eastern Alps discussed. In the Falknis, Sulzfluh and Tasna zones it is thought that the entire spectrum of post-Liassic sediments was deposited to the north of the Austro-Alpine continental margin. This is based on downcurrent variations of sedimentary structures to the north or northwest in the same direction as the trend of paleocurrent indicators, and on the close petrographic resemblance of coarse parent rock materials to Austro-Alpine units. Of particular significance are granitic rocks exposed by vertical movements along fault scarps associated with the first formation of oceanic crust. These granitic rocks, together with their Permo-Mesozoic sedimentary cover, were to be eroded and slumped down from the continental margin until the Senonian. Throughout the Jurassic, the clastic sediments were shed laterally onto the abyssal plain and base of the continental slope. Pelagic sedimentation during parts of the Late Jurassic and earliest Cretaceous, including Aptychus limestones deposited close to the calcite compensation depth, suggests that maximum subsidence of the initially passive continental margin had been attained by this time period. With the onset of continental convergence in the earliest Cretaceous, underthrusting of oceanic crust gave rise to an accretionary trench system. The Cretaceous sediments were deposited in a deep-sea fan environment affected by chaotic mass movements from the inner trench wall. It is believed that the close proximity to the source area of the vast majority of Jurassic and Cretaceous deposits reflects the relative motion between the plates, which must have been largely strike-slip and directed essentially E-W during the Cretaceous. An irregular leading edge of the Adriatic plate is proposed to account for Cretaceous high-pressure metamorphic events associated with higher rates of plate consumption in adjacent regions. N-S compressional movements in the Tertiary finally resulted in rapid underthrusting and continental accretion along most of the eastern Alpine arc.

Geochemistry of cold CO 2-rich springs of the Scuol-Tarasp region, Lower Engadine, Swiss Alps

A study of CO 2-rich (up to 3000 mg l −1) mineral (up to 460 meq l −1 total dissolved ions) and cold (2°–9°C) springs of the Lower Engadine region in the Swiss Alps, indicate the existence of three distinct geochemical groups: Ca-HCO 3 water, Na-HCO 3, Cl water and Na, Mg-HCO 3, SO 4 water. In each water group local mixing is observed between a mineral endmember of a pre-1953 age and a fresh, post-1953, endmember. All the spring waters appear to be of shallow origin and derived from local precipitation. The chemical composition is reached by local water-rock interactions, induced by CO 2, which ascends as a gaseous phase that emerges in mofettes and gets locally dissolved in shallow groundwater. The CO 2 is of crustal origin, as indicated by accompanying 3 He 4 He values of 0.1 of the atmospheric value, and δ 13C of around - 4‰ (PDB) (decomposition of marine carbonates and/or carbonates associated with rocks belonging to an ophiolitic suite).

Flugstaub In Vier Böden Aus Kalk, Dolomit Und Serpentin (Schweizer Jura Und Schweizer Alpen)

The accumulation of atmospheric dust in four different soils has been estimated qualitatively and in part quantitatively by particle size analysis, infrared-spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy combined with energy dispersive X-ray analysis, and neutron activation analysis. In a dolomitic rendzina in the Swiss National Park (Lower Engadine) a total amount of 0, 7 cm of dust has been detected. The dust consists mainly of quartz and feldspars and it is supposed to originate in neighbouring silicate regions. In a limestone rendzina on the Geissberg (Canton Aargau) no particular dust deposition was detected nor could it confidently be excluded. In two serpentine soils near Davos (Grisons) the accumulation of quartz amounts to 0, 04 cm in the brown earth and to 0, 14 cm in the podzol. From these data it may be concluded that the podzol is about three times older than the brown earth. Mit Korngrößenanalyse, IR-Spektroskopie, Röntgendiffraktion, Rasterelektronenmikroskopie, Röntgenemissionsspektroskopie und Neutronenaktivierungsanalyse wurde in vier verschiedenen Böden der Flugstaub qualitativ und zum Teil quantitativ bestimmt. In einer Dolomitrendzina im Nationalpark (Unterengadin) macht der Flugstaub total 0, 7 cm aus. Er besteht großenteils aus Quarz und Feldspäten und ist zum Teil von den Silikatbergen in der Umgebung eingeweht worden. In einer Kalksteinrendzina auf dem Geissberg (Kanton Aargau) konnte Flugstaub weder nachgewiesen noch ausgeschlossen werden. In einer Serpentin-Braunerde bei Davos (Kanton Graubünden) macht der eingewehte Quarz 0, 04 cm aus, in einem benachbarten Serpentin-Podsol 0, 14 cm. Das Podsol dürfte deshalb etwa dreimal älter sein als die Braunerde.

LAYERED MYLONITES AND THE PROCESSES OF METAMORPHIC DIFFERENTIATION

Research Article| May 01, 1965 LAYERED MYLONITES AND THE PROCESSES OF METAMORPHIC DIFFERENTIATION CHARLES B SCLAR CHARLES B SCLAR BATTELLE MEMORIAL INSTITUTE, 505 KING AVENUE, COLUMBUS, OHIO 43201 Search for other works by this author on: GSW Google Scholar GSA Bulletin (1965) 76 (5): 611–612. https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1965)76[611:LMATPO]2.0.CO;2 Article history received: 15 Oct 1964 first online: 02 Mar 2017 Cite View This Citation Add to Citation Manager Share Icon Share Facebook Twitter LinkedIn MailTo Tools Icon Tools Get Permissions Search Site Citation CHARLES B SCLAR; LAYERED MYLONITES AND THE PROCESSES OF METAMORPHIC DIFFERENTIATION. GSA Bulletin 1965;; 76 (5): 611–612. doi: https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1965)76[611:LMATPO]2.0.CO;2 Download citation file: Ris (Zotero) Refmanager EasyBib Bookends Mendeley Papers EndNote RefWorks BibTex toolbar search Search Dropdown Menu toolbar search search input Search input auto suggest filter your search All ContentBy SocietyGSA Bulletin Search Advanced Search Abstract Metamorphic differentiation is widely believed to result from processes that are either solely chemical or dominantly chemical and subordinately mechanical. Three occurrences of mineralogically layered mylonites derived from nonlayered parent rocks (metadolerite: Beartooth Mountains, Montana; biotite-amphibole-plagioclase gneiss: New London County, Connecticut; and granitic augen gneiss: Lower Engadine, Switzerland) indicate that metamorphic differentiation may also result from processes that are dominantly mechanical. Mechanical metamorphic differentiation is probably restricted to deep-seated faults or to finite zones of intense penetrative movement, whereas chemical and chemical-mechanical metamorphic differentiation are likely to be regional in extent. This content is PDF only. Please click on the PDF icon to access. First Page Preview Close Modal You do not have access to this content, please speak to your institutional administrator if you feel you should have access.

The Swiss National Park

The idea of a Swiss national park originated with the Swiss Society for Nature Research and this Society played the leading part in its realization. In 1906 the Society set up as part of its own organization a Swiss Nature Protection Commission and charged it to search for an area in Switzerland suitable for establishment as a reserve, in which all the animal and plant life could be protected against interference by man and so could be left entirely to the play of natural forces. It was not easy to find in Switzerland a suitably large area which still retained its original characteristics, was virtually free from human settlement, and contained some wealth of fauna and flora. After a careful survey of the whole country it became clear that the most suitable region was the Lower Engadine, with its isolated valleys on the eastern border of the country. The district in which, at the beginning of the century, bears had still lived was the one in which primitive nature could be found in its truest state.

The Swiss National Park

PROF. CARL SCHROETER of Zürich delivered the fourth Hooker lecture at the Lilnean Society on April 15 on the Swiss National Park. The movement for Nature protection is very strong in Switzerland, and civil law permits even expropriation in the interest of natural and historical monuments. The formation of the League for the Protection of Nature (Naturschutzbund) has made the matter a national one; it has about 30,000 members, who pay an annual subscription of 2 francs, or 50 francs for life membership. The League has been instrumental in many ways, but the most effective measure is the creation of the Swiss National Park, which occupies about 54 square miles in the Lower Engadine. Here shooting, fishing, manuring, grazing, mowing and wood-cutting are entirely prohibited. No flower or twig may be gathered, no animal killed, no stone removed, and even fallen trees must remain undisturbed. There are no hotels, only simple Alpine shelter huts, and camping and the lighting of fires is not allowed. The aim is to exclude the effect of human interference so far as possible: scenery, plants and animals are absolutely protected.

Research Items

THE Swiss NATIONAL PARK AND ITS MOLLUSCA.— First mooted in 1906, a National Park for Switzerland was finally established in January 1919. It is situate in the Lower Engadine, almost on the extreme eastern border of Switzerland, and abutting on the Italian frontier. It comprises an area of about 151.5 sq. km., and has been put in the charge of a Commission, which has wisely decided on a complete investigation of its fauna, flora, etc., a task which the Schweizerische Naturforschende Gesellschaft has undertaken to carry out. For the purposes of this survey, however, it has been resolved to include the territory to the north of the Park down to the banks of the Inn, as well as some to the east, so as to furnish a more satisfactory physical area to deal with as a whole. The first portion of this undertaking, the “Molluscan Fauna,” by Ernst Biitikofer, has just been published by the Schweizerische Naturforschende Gesellschaft in Bd. Iv. of their Denkschriften. If this be a fair sample the complete work will be well worthy of its authors. Following a general account of the characters of the eleven districts into which, for purposes of description, the district has been divided, come the molluscan fauna of each, a systematic description of the various species and varieties, with tables of their horizontal and vertical distribution, and an excellent bibliography. Close on eighty forms, if we include those in the appendix, are dealt with, and the photographs of shells are mostly particularly good.