Low Blood Lead Concentrations Research Articles

Low levels of potentially toxic elements in workers are associated with self-reported health outcomes

Occupational exposure to toxic elements can adversely affect health. The current study evaluated blood concentrations of potentially toxic elements (PTE) including As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Mn, Ni, Pb, Sb, Sn, and Zn in formal and informal workers. Additionally, the study investigated the associations between blood PTE concentrations and reported health outcomes in the study population. The exposed group included women engaged in informal jewelry welding within their homes in Limeira, São Paulo state, Brazil (n = 36) and men who worked at a steel company in Volta Redonda, Rio de Janeiro state, Brazil (n = 22). The control group comprised residents of the same neighborhoods as the workers but without occupational exposure to chemicals (n = 28 in Limeira; n = 27 in Volta Redonda). Triple Quadrupole Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (TQ ICP-MS) was used to determine PTE concentrations in blood samples. Glycemia, insulin, and lipid profile tests were performed. All participants completed questionnaires on household risk and reported morbidity. The blood concentrations of Cd, As, and Pb, as well as glycemia, were higher in informal workers than in control subjects. No significant differences were observed between formal workers and control subjects. A robust Poisson regression model, adjusted for variables suggested by a Directed Acyclic Graph, disclosed associations of blood lead and arsenic concentrations with the prevalence of neurological manifestations in Limeira. Blood lead levels > 2.6 μg dL−1 were associated with 2.3 times the prevalence of self-reported neurological manifestations (95 % CI: 1.17–4.58; p = 0.02) than lower blood lead concentrations. Furthermore, a positive association between blood cadmium concentrations and glycemia was observed. Informal occupational exposure to these elements may indicate an increased risk of developing diseases. Monitoring exposure and implementing interventions to reduce PTE exposure in the work environment represent significant steps toward prevention.

Estrogen-Containing Contraceptive Use and Blood Lead Concentrations in a Cohort of Young Women [ID 2683459

INTRODUCTION: Toxic metal lead is stored in the skeleton and, with increased bone turnover, is mobilized to systemic circulation. Given the bone-conserving properties of estrogens, we hypothesized that current users of estrogen-containing contraception would have lower blood lead concentrations. METHODS: We conducted a cross-sectional analysis using baseline data from the Study of Environment, Lifestyle & Fibroids (SELF). During 2010–2012 (baseline), 1,693 self-identified Black women, ages 23–35, enrolled. Data on contraceptive use were ascertained by interview. We quantified lead concentrations in whole blood using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Among 1,555 participants, we estimated the percent difference in blood lead concentrations and 95% CIs between current users and nonusers of estrogen-containing contraception using multivariable linear regression, adjusting for potential confounders. RESULTS: The geometric mean blood lead concentrations for estrogen-containing contraceptive users and nonusers were 0.41 micrograms/dL (95% CI: 0.39, 0.43) and 0.51 micrograms/dL (95% CI: 0.50, 0.52), respectively. After adjustment, current use of estrogen-containing contraception was associated with 10% lower blood lead concentrations (95% CI: −15%, −4%). Considering estrogen-containing contraceptive type, compared to nonusers, combined oral contraceptive users (n=187) had 9% lower blood lead concentrations (95% CI: −15%, −2%) and vaginal ring/transdermal patch users (n=33) had 17% lower blood lead concentrations (95% CI: −29%, −4%). CONCLUSION: As hypothesized, we observed lower blood lead concentrations with current use of estrogen-containing contraception. Further research is warranted to confirm the results and to understand the relationship between lead exposure, hormonal contraception, and bone health to limit systemic lead exposure.

The seasonal threat of lead exposure in bald eagles

Bald eagles often scavenge hunting remains embedded with lead bullet fragments, which debilitate and kill many eagles. Measuring blood lead concentrations (BLC) in free-flying bald eagles and those received by rehabilitators allows researchers to both actively and opportunistically monitor exposure. From 2012 to 2022, we captured 62 free-flying bald eagles and measured their BLC following the big-game hunting season in Montana, USA, which occurs from late October through late November. Between 2011 and 2022, we also measured the BLC of 165 bald eagles received by Montana's four raptor rehabilitation centers. Most of the free-flying bald eagles (89 %) had BLC above background (≥10 μg/dL), and BLC of juveniles tended to be lower as winter progressed (ρ = −0.482, P = 0.017). Bald eagles received by rehabilitators had an almost identical prevalence of BLC above background (90 %) over that same timeframe (n = 48). However, those eagles in rehabilitation were more likely to have BLC exceeding the clinical threshold (≥ 60 μg/dL), which we observed only from November through May. Between June and October, 45 % of bald eagles in rehabilitation had sub-clinical BLC (10–59 μg/dL), suggesting that many eagles may live with BLC chronically above background concentrations. Hunters may help lower BLC in bald eagles by switching to lead-free bullets. Those mitigation efforts could be evaluated through a continued monitoring of BLC in both free-flying bald eagles and those received by rehabilitators.

Case series of chronic occupational lead exposure in shooting ranges

IntroductionDespite existing occupational lead exposure prevention regulations, Lithuanian shooting range workers still complain of chronic lead poisoning related symptoms. This indicates a poor understanding of occupational safety when working in lead-polluted environments. Case presentation20 men, whose age ranged from 32 to 57 (mean 41.8 ± 10 years), were consulted at the Toxicology Centre at the Republican Vilnius university hospital in Vilnius, Lithuania in the 2016–2019 year period. All of the patients were working as shooting instructors, with their work experience varying from 2 to 30 years. Clinical examination showed blood lead levels ranging from 5.64 μg/dL to 45.8 μg/dL (norm for occupational exposure - <40 μg/dL). Main symptoms were fatigue (12 patients out of 20), dizziness (5/20), arthralgia (5/20). Other symptoms included impaired memory (3/20), nausea (3/20), sleep disorders (3/20), metallic or sweet taste (3/20), dermatological disorders (3/20), coxarthrosis (2/20), balance disorders (2/20), paresthesia (2/20), abdominal pain (2/20) and others. 4 patients were asymptomatic. DiscussionShooting range employees are highly vulnerable to daily lead exposure. Even low constant elevated blood lead concentrations can have significant toxic effects over time.

Comparison of Thyroid Function in Lead-Poisoned Patients and Healthy Individuals in Eastern Iran.

Lead (Pb) is a prevalent environmental toxic metal that may harmfully affect the function of the thyroid gland. Our information about the effects of lead on thyroid function in lead poisoning is limited. The present study aimed to evaluate thyroid function in lead-poisoned patients compared with the healthy group. In this study, two groups of lead poisoning subjects (lead concentrations ≥ 25μg/dL) (n = 56) (HBLC group) and randomly selected age and gender-matched healthy individuals with lower blood lead concentrations (BLC < 10μg/dL) (n = 58) (LBLC group) were included. Thyroid function tests, including thyroxine (T4), triiodothyronine (T3), and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) concentration, were measured for each patient in both groups (for the HBLC group, it was taken on admission). The linear regression model was used to investigate the effects of lead poisoning on thyroid function tests. A p-value of less than 0.05 was considered significant. Our study showed no significant difference between the two groups in terms of age and gender. The mean concentration of T3 and TSH in the HBLC group was significantly lower than the LBLC group, but the mean levels of T4 were significantly higher in the HBLC group (p < 0.05). Based on the linear regression model results, the T3 and TSH levels in the LBLC group were significantly higher by 13.86 and 0.43 units than the HBLC group, respectively. The current study results showed that lead poisoning affects thyroid function, reduces TSH, and increases T4.

The association between salivary cortisone level and structural change of Limbic system based on differences in blood heavy metal concentration among Korean firefighters

TPS 792: Occupational health 2, Exhibition Hall, Ground floor, August 27, 2019, 3:00 PM - 4:30 PM Introduction: The limbic system is an anatomical structure that plays a pivotal role in motivation, emotion, learning and memory. Firefighters are chronically exposed to violence, trauma and other threats. They are also constantly exposed to a variety of environmental hazardous substances. This study focused on the association of limbic system atrophy and salivary cortisone known as stress hormone. Finally, we analyzed whether there is a difference in the relationship between cortisone level and the stuctural change of the limbic system among the subgroups with different concentrations of heavy metals. Methods: Subjects from Firefighter Research Enhancement of Safty&Health (FRESH) cohort in South Korea were used in analysis. Saliva sample was collected at 1:00 pm on all participants. Of the total subjects, 349 measured cortical thickness, and brain volume for all areas of the brain by brain 3T MRI. We divide the subjects into two subgroups each based on the median value of the heavy metal-lead and cadmium- concentration in the blood. Furthermore, to show a correlation between salivary cortisone and structural change of the limbic system, the generalized linear models was used. Results: In both groups with lower blood lead concentrations (under 1.900ug/dL) and lower cadmium (under 0.793ug/L), there was no statistically significant association between salivary cortisone and the limbic structure. In group with higher blood lead concentrations, higher salivary cortisone showed a decline left (β=-45.3316, p=0.0044) and right (β=-35.2435, p=0.0232) hippocampus, and left (β=-0.0115, p=0.0395) and right (β=-0.0126, p=0.0201) cingulate gyrus. In group with higher blood cadmium concentrations, higher salivary cortisone showed a decline left (β=-45.1016, p=0.0032) and right (β=-37.1952, p=0.0081) hippocampus, left (β=-19.3342, p=0.0076) and right (β=-18.1622, p=0.0129) thalamus, and right cingulate(β=-0.0113, p=0.0245). Conclusions: The results of this analysis indicate that salivary cortisone level was partially related with volume and thickness of some limbic system structure in subjects with relatively high blood heavy metal concentration even within normal levels.

Case epidemiology from the first three years of a pilot laboratory-based surveillance system for elevated blood-lead concentrations among children in England, 2014-17: implications for public health action.

BackgroundChildren incur lead toxicity even at low blood-lead concentrations (BLCs), and testing in England is opportunistic. We described epidemiology of cases notified to a passive laboratory-based surveillance system (SS), the Lead Poisoning in Children (LPIC) SS to inform opportunities to prevent lead exposure in children in England.MethodsSurveillance population: children <16 years of age and resident in England during the reporting period September 2014–17. Case definition: children with BLC ≥0.48 μmol/l (10 μg/dl). We extracted case demographic/location data and linked it with laboratory, area-level population and socio-economic status (SES) data. We described case BLCs and calculated age-, gender- and SES-specific notification rates, and age-sex standardised regional notification rates.ResultsBetween 2014 and 2017 there were 86 newly notified cases, giving an annual average notification rate of 2.76 per million children aged 0–15 years. Regionally, rates varied from 0.36 to 9.89 per million. Rates were highest in the most deprived quintile (5.38 per million), males (3.75 per million) and children aged 1–4 years (5.89 per million).ConclusionsMales, children aged 1–4 years, and children in deprived areas may be at higher risk, and could be targeted for primary prevention. Varied regional notification rates suggest differences in clinician awareness of lead exposure and risk factors; guidelines standardising the indications for BLC-testing may assist secondary prevention.

The association between plasma selenium and chronic kidney disease related to lead, cadmium and arsenic exposure in a Taiwanese population.

This study aimed to determine the interaction of red blood cell cadmium and lead, total urinary arsenic, and plasma selenium in chronic kidney disease (CKD). We recruited 220 CKD patients as well as 438 gender- and age-matched controls, and we defined CKD as <60 mL/min/1.73 m2 estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) for three or more consecutive months. Plasma selenium and red blood cell cadmium and lead concentrations were measured by ICP-MS. Urinary arsenic species were determined via HPLC-HG-AAS and were summed to determine the total urinary arsenic concentration. Plasma selenium was positively correlated to eGFR, and subjects with high plasma selenium levels (>243.90 μg/L) had a significantly lower odds ratio (OR) and 95% confidence interval (CI) (0.23, 0.13-0.42) for CKD compared to those with low plasma selenium levels (≤ 196.70 μg/L). High plasma selenium and low red blood cell cadmium or lead concentrations interacted to decrease the OR and 95% CI for CKD (0.12, 0.06-0.26; 0.09, 0.04-0.19). High plasma selenium and low red blood cell lead levels also interacted to increase the eGFR (20.70, 15.56-26.01 mL/min/1.73 m2). This study is the first to suggest that selenium modifies the eGFR and OR in CKD induced by environmental toxicants.

Effects of lead from ammunition on birds and other wildlife: A review and update

Poisoning of wild birds following ingestion of lead from ammunition has long been recognised and considerable recent research has focused on terrestrial birds, including raptors and scavengers. This paper builds upon previous reviews and finds that both the number of taxa affected and geographical spread of cases has increased. Some lead may also be absorbed from embedded ammunition fragments in injured birds which risk sub-lethal and welfare effects. Some papers suggest inter-specific differences in sensitivity to lead, although it is difficult to disentangle these from other factors that influence effect severity. Sub-lethal effects have been found at lower blood lead concentrations than previously reported, suggesting that previous effect-level ‘thresholds’ should be abandoned or revised. Lead poisoning is estimated to kill a million wildfowl a year in Europe and cause sub-lethal poisoning in another ≥ 3 million. Modelling and correlative studies have supported the potential for population-level effects of lead poisoning in wildfowl, terrestrial birds, raptors and scavengers.

Risk Assessment of Lead Exposure from Cervid Meat in Norwegian Consumers and in Hunting Dogs

Risk Assessment of Lead Exposure from Cervid Meat in Norwegian Consumers and in Hunting Dogs

Prenatal, concurrent, and sex-specific associations between blood lead concentrations and IQ in preschool Canadian children

BackgroundLead exposure predicts altered neurodevelopment and lower intelligence quotient (IQ) in children, but few studies have examined this association in children who have relatively low blood lead concentrations. ObjectivesTo test the associations between blood lead concentrations and cognitive function in Canadian preschoolers, with a possible moderation by sex. MethodsThe data were gathered from 609 mother-child pairs from the Maternal–Infant Research on Environmental Chemicals (MIREC) Study. Lead was measured in umbilical and maternal blood, and in children's venous blood at age 3–4 years. Cognitive function was measured with the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI-III) at 3–4 years. We tested the relationship between WPPSI-III scores and blood lead concentrations with multiple linear regression, adding child sex as a moderator. ResultsMedian blood lead concentrations for the mother at 1st trimester and 3rd trimester of pregnancy, and for cord and child blood were 0.60 μg/dL, 0.58 μg/dL, 0.79 μg/dL and 0.67 μg/dL, respectively. We found no association between cord blood lead concentrations and WPPSI-III scores in multivariable analyses. However, cord blood lead concentrations showed a negative association with Performance IQ in boys but not in girls (B = 3.44; SE = 1.62; 95% CI: 0.82, 5.98). No associations were found between WPPSI-III scores and prenatal maternal blood or concurrent child blood lead concentrations. ConclusionsPrenatal blood lead concentrations below 5 μg/dL were still associated with a decline in cognitive function in this Canadian cohort, but only for boys.

Factors influencing patient preferences for oral versus intravenous (IV) enzyme replacement medication

Despite existing occupational lead exposure prevention regulations, Lithuanian shooting range workers still complain of chronic lead poisoning related symptoms. This indicates a poor understanding of occupational safety when working in lead-polluted environments.20 men, whose age ranged from 32 to 57 (mean 41.8 ± 10 years), were consulted at the Toxicology Centre at the Republican Vilnius university hospital in Vilnius, Lithuania in the 2016–2019 year period. All of the patients were working as shooting instructors, with their work experience varying from 2 to 30 years. Clinical examination showed blood lead levels ranging from 5.64 μg/dL to 45.8 μg/dL (norm for occupational exposure - <40 μg/dL). Main symptoms were fatigue (12 patients out of 20), dizziness (5/20), arthralgia (5/20). Other symptoms included impaired memory (3/20), nausea (3/20), sleep disorders (3/20), metallic or sweet taste (3/20), dermatological disorders (3/20), coxarthrosis (2/20), balance disorders (2/20), paresthesia (2/20), abdominal pain (2/20) and others. 4 patients were asymptomatic.Shooting range employees are highly vulnerable to daily lead exposure. Even low constant elevated blood lead concentrations can have significant toxic effects over time.

Blood lead concentrations and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in Korean children: a hospital-based case control study.

BackgroundBecause the developing brain of a child is vulnerable to environmental toxins, even very low concentration of neurotoxin can affect children’s neurodevelopment. Lead is a neurotoxic heavy metal which has the harmful effect on the striatal-frontal circuit of brain. This area of the brain is known to be closely related to attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) pathophysiology. The primary objective of the present study was to investigate whether elevated blood lead concentration is a risk factor for ADHD. The secondary objective was to examine the association between blood lead concentration and symptom severity.MethodsWe conducted a frequency-matched, hospital-based case-control study with 114 medically diagnosed ADHD cases and 114 controls. The participants were matched for age and sex. The diagnoses of ADHD were assessed with semi-structured diagnostic interviews. The participants completed the continuous performance test (CPT), and their parents completed the ADHD-rating scale (ADHD-RS). Blood lead concentrations were measured by using graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry featuring Zeeman background correction.ResultsChildren with ADHD exhibited blood lead concentrations that were significantly higher than those of the controls ( 1.90 ± 086 μg/dℓ vs. 1.59 ± 0.68 μg/dℓ, p = 0.003). The log transformed total blood lead concentration was associated with a higher risk of ADHD (OR: 1.60, 95 % CI: 1.04–2.45, p < 0.05). The analysis also revealed that the children with blood lead concentrations above 2.30 μg/dℓ were at a 2.5–fold (95 % CI: 1.09–5.87, p < 0.05) greater risk of having ADHD. After adjusting for covariates, our multivariate regression models indicated that blood lead concentrations were not significantly associated with ADHD-RS or CPT profiles among the ADHD cases.ConclusionEven low blood lead concentrations are a risk factor for ADHD in children. This study warrants primary prevention policies to reduce the environmental lead burden. Future studies may be required to ascertain the effects of lead on symptom severity in ADHD.

Low-level lead exposure and autistic behaviors in school-age children

IntroductionThe association between lead exposure and autism spectrum disorder is inconclusive. We hypothesized an association between higher blood lead concentrations and more autistic behaviors, including impaired social interactions and communication, stereotypical behaviors, and restricted interests, among school-age children. MethodsData from 2473 Korean children aged 7–8years who had no prior history of developmental disorders were analyzed. Two follow-up surveys were conducted biennially until the children reached 11–12years of age. Blood lead concentrations were measured at every survey, and autistic behaviors were evaluated at 11–12years of age using the Autism Spectrum Screening Questionnaire (ASSQ) and Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS). The associations of blood lead concentration with ASSQ and SRS scores were analyzed using negative binomial, logistic, and linear regression models. ResultsBlood lead concentrations at 7–8years of age (geometric mean: 1.64μg/dL), but not at 9–10 and 11–12years of age, were associated with more autistic behaviors at 11–12years of age, according to the ASSQ (β=0.151; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.061, 0.242) and SRS (β=2.489; 95% CI: 1.378, 3.600). SRS subscale analysis also revealed associations between blood lead concentrations and social awareness, cognition, communication, motivation, and mannerisms. ConclusionEven low blood lead concentrations at 7–8years of age are associated with more autistic behaviors at 11–12years of age, underscoring the need for continued efforts to reduce lead exposure.

Late effects of low blood lead concentrations in children on school performance and cognitive functions

BackgroundAlthough it is known that lead is a neurotoxin that negatively impacts cognitive functions at low blood concentrations (B-Pb), little is known about the impact of early exposure on later cognitive functions. ObjectivesThis study assesses the effects of very low lead exposure in early childhood on teenage cognitive performance. MethodsUsing data collected between 1978 and 2007, we analyzed B-Pb (median 30μg/L; six-fold decrease over time) in 3176 Swedish children (age 7–12). School performance in grade 9 (age 16; boys and girls) and over-all IQs measured during conscription examinations (age 18–19; mainly boys) were obtained from registers. In multivariate models, potential confounders (age at blood sampling, sex, parents’ education, family economy, and country of birth of child and parents) and effect modifiers (socioeconomic; father's IQ at conscription examination) were included. ResultsThere were statistically significant adjusted negative associations between school performance (Grades up to 1991: P<0.0001; Merits 1992-2007:P<0.0001) and IQ (P=0.03) and B-Pb. The dose–response relationships were non-linear. Effects were more pronounced for B-Pb≤50μg/L than for higher levels. In the B-Pb range 5–50μg/L, the average IQ loss corresponded to about 5 IU. There was no significant effect modification associated with socioeconomic factors. ConclusionsLead causes neurotoxic effects at very low exposures (B-Pb<50μg/L) in childhood and these effects remain for many years.

Relationship Between Blood Lead Levels and Hematological Indices in Pregnant Women

Several studies have revealed a negative association between blood lead levels and hematological impairment. In this cross-sectional study, we examined the relationship between blood lead levels and hematological indices in 292 pregnant women from Durango, Mexico. Apparently healthy pregnant women, aged 14–41 years and at 3–41 weeks of gestation, were recruited between June 2007 and May 2008. Blood lead and hematological indices were measured. The mean blood lead was 2.79 ± 2.16 μg/dL, and lead levels ≥5 μg/dL were detected in 25 women (8.6%). Hemoglobin, hematocrit, and red blood cells count were significantly higher in pregnant women with a blood lead concentration of ≥5 μg/dL than the group with lower blood lead levels (p < .05). Mean corpuscular volume and mean corpuscular hemoglobin were not significantly related to lead levels. Hemoglobin and hematocrit showed a non-significant positive correlation with blood lead, but the correlation between red blood cell count and blood lead levels was statistically significant (r = 0.185, p = .002). The findings suggest that a positive association between blood lead and some hematological indices may occur at relatively low blood lead concentration (mean < 5 μg/dL).

Sex-specific Profiles of Blood Metal Levels Associated with Metal-Iron Interactions.

The mechanisms by which iron is absorbed are similar to those of divalent metals, particularly manganese, lead, and cadmium. These metals, however, show different toxicokinetics in relation to menarche or menopause, although their interaction with iron is the same. This review focuses on the kinetics of these three toxic metals (manganese, lead, and cadmium) in relation to menarche, pregnancy, and menopause. The iron–manganese interaction is the major factor determining sex-specific differences in blood manganese levels throughout the whole life cycle. The effects of estrogen overshadow the association between iron deficiency and increased blood lead concentrations, explaining why women, despite having lower ferritin concentrations, have lower blood lead concentrations than men. Iron deficiency is associated with elevated cadmium levels in premenopausal women, but not in postmenopausal women or men; these findings indicate that sex-specific differences in cadmium levels at older ages are not due to iron–cadmium interactions, and that further studies are required to identify the source of these differences. In summary, the potential causes of sex-specific differences in the blood levels of manganese, lead, and cadmium differ from each other, although all these three metals are associated with iron deficiency. Therefore, other factors such as estrogen effects, or absorption rate as well as iron deficiency, should be considered when addressing environmental exposure to toxic metals and sex-specific differences in the blood levels of these metals.

Contaminated turmeric is a potential source of lead exposure for children in rural Bangladesh.

Background. During the conduct of a cohort study intended to study the associations between mixed metal exposures and child health outcomes, we found that 78% of 309 children aged 20–40 months evaluated in the Munshiganj District of Bangladesh had blood lead concentrations ≥5 µg/dL and 27% had concentrations ≥10 µg/dL. Hypothesis. Environmental sources such as spices (e.g., turmeric, which has already faced recalls in Bangladesh due to high lead levels) may be a potential route of lead exposure. Methods. We conducted visits to the homes of 28 children randomly selected from among high and low blood lead concentration groups. During the visits, we administered a structured questionnaire and obtained soil, dust, rice, and spice samples. We obtained water samples from community water sources, as well as environmental samples from neighborhood businesses. Results. Lead concentrations in many turmeric samples were elevated, with lead concentrations as high as 483 ppm. Analyses showed high bioaccessibility of lead. Conclusions. Contamination of turmeric powder is a potentially important source of lead exposure in this population.

Effects of iron therapy on blood lead concentrations in infants

To determine whether blood lead concentration is elevated in iron-deficient infants, blood lead and serum ferritin concentrations, serum iron/transferring iron-binding capacity (Fe/TIBC) and complete blood counts were measured in 30 iron deficient and 35 control infants, aged 6–24 months. All 30 iron-deficient infants received iron supplementation (ferric hydroxide-polymaltose complex, 6mg/kg Fe3+/day) for 1–6 months. Blood lead concentrations were measured in 18 of the iron deficient infants after their ferritin levels returned to the normal range. The geometric mean blood lead concentration was higher in iron deficient than in control infants (1.846 vs. 1.416μg/dL). After iron therapy, the blood lead levels of iron-deficient infants decreased significantly compared with pre-treatment levels (1.785 vs. 2.386μg/dL), and the hemoglobin and ferritin concentrations increased significantly. These findings indicate that iron deficiency increases blood lead concentrations in infants with very low blood lead concentrations.

Consumption of lead-shot cervid meat and blood lead concentrations in a group of adult Norwegians

Several recent investigations have reported high concentrations of lead in samples of minced cervid meat. This paper describes findings from a Norwegian study performed in 2012 among 147 adults with a wide range of cervid game consumption. The main aim was to assess whether high consumption of lead-shot cervid meat is associated with increased concentration of lead in blood. A second aim was to investigate to what extent factors apart from game consumption explain observed variability in blood lead levels.Median (5 and 95 percentile) blood concentration of lead was 16.6µg/L (7.5 and 39µg/L). An optimal multivariate linear regression model for log-transformed blood lead indicated that cervid game meat consumption once a month or more was associated with approximately 31% increase in blood lead concentrations. The increase seemed to be mostly associated with consumption of minced cervid meat, particularly purchased minced meat. However, many participants with high and long-lasting game meat intake had low blood lead concentrations. Cervid meat together with number of bullet shots per year, years with game consumption, self-assembly of bullets, wine consumption and smoking jointly accounted for approximately 25% of the variation in blood lead concentrations, while age and sex accounted for 27% of the variance. Blood lead concentrations increased approximately 18% per decade of age, and men had on average 30% higher blood lead concentrations than women. Hunters who assembled their own ammunition had 52% higher blood lead concentrations than persons not making ammunition. In conjunction with minced cervid meat, wine intake was significantly associated with increased blood lead. Our results indicate that hunting practices such as use of lead-based ammunition, self-assembling of lead containing bullets and inclusion of lead-contaminated meat for mincing to a large extent determine the exposure to lead from cervid game consumption.